
COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 



THE FRUIT-GROWERS GUIDE-BOOK 



The Fruit- Growers 

Guide-Book 



BY 

E. H. FAVOR 

. \ 

Associate Editor 
THE FRUIT-GROWER 



* 



Published by 

THE FRUIT-GROWER 

St. Joseph, Mo. 

1911 






Copyrighted 1911 

by 

THE FRUIT-GROWER 

St. Joseph, Mo. 



,t)0 



CI,A280045 



PREFACE 



This little book has been prepared as a means of as- 
sisting many persons who have answered the call "back to 
the land," and who are undertaking the growing of fruit 
on a commercial scale. It is not intended as an exhaus- 
tive treatise on fruit growing, as such is manifestly im- 
possible within the size of such a book. Neither is it ex- 
pected to tell all that is to be told about fruit growing. 
Its purpose is to serve for the guidance of the beginner and 
as a handy reference manual for the busy orchardist. 

The foundation upon which this little book is based is 
the many letters which reach the office of The Fruit- 
Grower, containing inquiries about many phases of fruit- 
growing. These inquiries come from all parts of the Unite*! 
States and from Canada, and cover almost every phase of 
horticultural work, although in preparing this book only 
the general problem of growing the ordinary deciduous 
orchard fruits has been considered. This problem has been 
coiisidered in a very general way without specific direc- 
tions for any particular fruit. Where details for a given 
fruit have been needed, the treatment of the subject has 
been boiled down to as concise a form as possible. 



6 Preface I 

The present age is witnessing a remarkable advance- 
ment in fruit growing, as well as all other lines of agricul- 
ture. This development is coming about through the fact 
that greater individual attention is being given to each 
hne of wark.' Fruit-growing has been largely a matter 
incidental to the general line of farming. But as it is the 
specialist in any line who succeeds, so it has come that the 
business of growing fruit has been drawing away more and 
more from its connection with other phases of farming. 
This very fact is one of the great reasons for the rapid 
advancements which have been made in orcharding. So 
rapid is the advancement in fruit-growing that the pro- 
gressive orchardist must be continually on the alert to keep 
up with the new ideas and practices which are being devel- 
oped. Ten years ago the box as an apple package was prac- 
tically unknown. The spraying machine was a novelty and 
was looked upon with suspicion; fruit-growing under irriga- 
tion was a novelty in the extreme and cold storage plants 
were rare. Even so recent as three years ago, but few fruit- 
growers had ever heard of really effective means of beating 
Jack Frost at his own game. But the orchard man of the 
hour knows how to spray effectually, how to pack his fruit, 
how to fight frost; recognizes all of these things as vital 
factors in the management of his business. 

The facts which are outlined in this volume have been 
culled and compiled from many of the important articles 
which have appeared in the columns of The Fruit-Grower 
during the past two or three years, as well as from some 
of the bulletins which have issued from the Bureau of 
Plant Industry of the United States Department of Agri- 
culture and the State Experiment Stations. These articles 



Preface 7 

have been condensed and only the essential facts retained, 
to bring them within the space of -one small book. The 
publishers have for a long time felt the need for such a 
book as this, and it is their hope, as well as the hope of 
the writer, that it will be of assistance to many persons in 
paving the way for more profitable orchards and better 
homes. 

January, 1911. E. H. FAVOR, 



Contents 



CONTENTS 

^ Page 
Chapter I — The Orchard 15 

Cliapter II — Orchard Heating 48 

Chapter III — Thinning and Harvesting 64 

Chapter TV — Packing 76 

Chapter V — Spraying Ill 

Chapter VI — Orchard Pests and Diseases 134 

Chapter VII — Principles of Pruning 173 

Chapter VIII — Profits in Fruit-Growing 199 

Chapter IX— Small Fruits 204 



Illustrations 11 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



Page 

Wash through deep soil 16 

A compact orchard community 25 

Diagram of orchard planted in squares 28 

Diagram of orchard planted in triangles 30 

Diagram of an orchard planted with "fillers" 39 

Troutman oil burning heaters 51 

Filling "Ideal" coal burning heaters 55 

Peaches at right stage for thinning 65 

Apples at right stage for thinning 66 

Interior peach packing shed 90 

A nicely faced barrel of apples 93 

Apples are usually barreled in the orchard 94 

General appearance Hamilton grading machine ^9 

Upper end of the machine 100 

The belts of the grader 101 

Looking dov/n on the belt 103 

Four tier apples packed "straight" 104 

Beginning the pack 107 

Finished box, 4^ tier apples 108 

Starting the straight and diagonal pack 109 

Barrel spray outfit 112 

Power sprayer in operation 115 

High pressure spraying machines and refilling tank... 117 
Convenient arrangement for mixing spray material.. ..120 

Woolh'- aphis 135 

Galls produced by woolly aphis 136 

Codling moth 140 

Plum curculio 142 



12 Illustrations 

Page 

Apple curculio 144 

Flat headed borer 145 

Apple blossoms at stages for spraying 159 

Strawberry leaf spot 172 

Long stubs left in pruning 177 

Large wounds properly made 180 

Apple tree with open-top 184 

Good arrangement of branches in young peach trees ..186 

Three branches in head of peach tree 187 

Average type of peach tree 188 

Open head on peach tree 190 

Low headed peach tree with open top 191 

Dewberry trained to a post 197 

Crops between trees 200 

Tomatoes as a catch crop 202 

Currant cuttings 209 

Grape cuttings 214 

Black raspberry cane with rooted tips 221 

Strawberries for planting 230 

Old strawberry plant 232 

Strawberry flowers 236 

Wide matted rows of strawberries 238 

Portable canning outfit 241 

A fine young apple orchard in the irrigated country. . . .250 

Apple grafts 258 

Long and short scions 259 

Right and wrong way to plant a graft 260 

Pear graft and scicns for cleft-grafting 261 

A top-worked apple tree 263 

Budding sticks 266 

Budding peaches 268 

Irrigating an apple orchard 277 




"BROTHER JONATHAN" 

Trade Mark of The Fruit-Grower 

St. Joseph, Mo. 



Soils for an Orchard 15 



CHAPTER I 



The Orchard 

One of the first questions that confronts a person who 
is starting an orchard is the problem of where to put it. 
It is true that fruit trees will grow and thrive under a 
variety of conditions, but there is always one which is best. 
This condition is based on such factors as the soil, site, lo- 
cation, kind of fruit that is to be grown and markets that 
are to be supplied. 

Soils for an Orchard 

Apple trees will grow on a great variety of soils, but 
they do best on well drained, deep, rich clays and loams. 
The early summer apples do well on light sandy soils, 
because they ripen their fruit before the dry weather of 
summer reduces the amount of available soil moisture. 
Late maturing varieties can be made to ripen their fruit a 
little earlier by planting on warm soils, such as the lighter 
clays. Late apples do best on heavy soils, as such are 
usually more retentive of moisture. Excessively rich soils, 
such as some of the muck lands of the Northern and East- 
ern states, will produce very rank-growing trees, but they 
will not be very good fruit producers, as the energy of 
the trees is spent in producing wood. On such soils there 
is the added danger of the wood growth being so soft at 
the time winter comes that the branches will be severely 
frozen back. 

Orchard soils should be rich, however, as it takes a 
great amount of soil fertility to supply the necessary ele- 
ments to build up the wood in the tree, and this must 



16 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



always be done before the frnit can be developed. Nur- 
sery trees are very hard on the soil, and for this reason 
nurserymen know that it is necessary to fertilize their. 
lands very thoroughly, as by that means onlj'- can they 
produce good, strong and vigorous trees. If trees con- 




A wash through deep soil. Such a soil is ideal for fruit, 
as it allows the roots to penetrate to a great depth. 

tinued to grow as thriftily in the orchard as they do in the 
nursery, there would be a thousandfold greater returns 
from the orchard than there are today. A very large pro- 
portion of the trees that are planted in the orchard today 
are lost by starvation before they reach bearing age. A 



New Land 17 

soil which has been cropped to death and worn out before 
being planted to trees is not suitable for orchard land until 
after it has undergone several years of soil improving 
culture. 

New Land 

New land is very desirable for an orchard, and especial- 
ly land which has just been cleared of a heavy growth of 
timber. The decaying foliage and roots of the forest 
growth leaves the soil with a generous supply of humus, 
and will produce a luxuriant growth of wood in the young 
trees. However, the land should be freed from all stumps 
and roots before the orchard is planted, as this work is 
done more easily and cheaply while the entire area is open 
and free for the movement of the teams necessary in clear- 
ing the land. 

In lands that are covered with a growth of scrub oak 
there is much danger from root rot becoming troublesome 
and planting immediately after the timber is removed is 
not advisable. In any land from which the timber has just 
been removed it is always best to put the ground into 
some cultivated or soil building crop such as corn, pota- 
toes, 'clover or cow peas for a couple of years before plant- 
ing the trees. 

Stony land is not at all objectionable for orchards, as 
on steep slopes the stones help in protecting the soil from 
excessive washing, and no doubt help materially in warm- 
ing up the soil in the spring. A stony soil is usually a 
well drained soil. On lands which have a very steep slope 
the stones can easily be made into terraces below the trees 
or they may be placed in the iorm of terraces between 
each two rows of trees. Unless the soil is very thin stones 
may be considered as a benefit rather than otherwise, be- 
cause of the value they are to the land in assisting in drain- 
age and in protecting the soil from washing. 

Where virgin soil cannot be had for the orchard, only 
rich land should be used. An orchard will occupy the land 
for many years, and very thorough preparation should be 
given before the trees are planted. Never set the trees 



18 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

on poor or dry land, for if they do start they are so 
stunted that it is next to impossible to ever get them to 
make a satisfactory orchard. Lands which have been used 
for grain crops for several years, without the addition of 
plenty of manure, or green manuring crops, should not be 
planted until the soil has been built up. Old pasture lands, 
while possibly rich in fertility, should be in some culti- 
vated crop for at least one season before planting to or- 
chard, so as to get the soil into better tilth. It is alwaj'-s 
cheaper and easier to prepare land for an orchard before 
the trees are planted than afterwards. 

Before trees are set in an orchard the land should be 
deeply and thoroughly plowed and put into the best pos- 
sible tilth. In soils that are excessively stony, or in which 
it is very expensive to plow the entire area, a strip through 
the field where the rows are to stand should be made, and 
the soil worked deep. In case the soil is shallow, and un- 
derlaid by a hardpan, it is always desirable that a subsoil 
plow follow the furrow after the turning plow, so as to 
break up the hardpan immediately under the trees, and let 
the young roots penetrate as deep as possible, thereby in- 
creasing their feeding area, and affording a better anchor- 
age for the trees. 

Selecting a Site for the Orchard 

The site of the orchard has great influence on its fruit- 
fulness, and in a commercial orchard the site needs due 
consideration with reference to the surrounding condi- 
tions, such as the slope of the land, and the direction it 
faces, the nearness to a large body of water or high bluff 
or mountain, etc. For the home orchard the site is often 
predetermined, and the orchard has to be planted on what- 
ever land is left after the house and lawn have been pro- 
vided. 

For a commercial orchard it is always to be desired 
that the orchard should be somewhat elevated over the 
surrounding country, in order that free air drainage be 
secured, and thereby reduce the tendency toward late 
spring frosts. In many instances this will give material 



Selec-ting a Site for the Orchard 



19 



assistance in preventing frost in the late spring, as it is 
well known that cold air is heavier than warm air, and 
flows to the lower levels. To get the benefit of this air 
drainage, the orchard must be on high land with lower 
land immediately near, such as a ravine or valley. Hill 
tops afford the most ideal positions as regards air drainage 
and if other conditions are satisfactory make excellent lo- 
cations for orchards. 




Rolling' land, such as this, gives good air drainage and 
furnishes a good orchard site. 



Northern and eastern slopes are regarded as best for 
apple orchards, owing to the fact that they are slower in 
warming up in the spring than slopes in other directions. 
This condition results in retarding the blooming period of 
trees, and is often sufficient to avoid injury from frost in 
many seasons. A site facing the direction of the prevail- 
ing winds will often have a marked influence on the less- 
ened damage from frost in spring. This is especially true 
of those sections in the mountainous states where there 
are strong canon winds, as the constant movement of the 



20 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

air prevents frostiness. Soils on the northern and eastern 
slopes are generally deeper and richer than those found 
on southern or western slopes, possibly because the sun 
Goes not strike such slopes so directly and does not burn 
out the humus so quickly. 

Southern slopes are earlier and permit of a longer 
growing season. Trees which are situated on southern 
exposures receive more sunshine, and usually develop 
fruits of higher color than on the north and east. In 
regions where the growing season is short, it is always 
best to select a strong southern exposure for the orchard. 
In high altitudes this fact is often of great importance, as 
any element which will prolong the season for late apples 
and induce them to take on their full color should be fav- 
ored. Early varieties in high altitudes will usually mature 
on northern or eastern slopes. 

The soil on southern and western slopes is usually 
drier than on the opposite sides, and for this reason it 
frequently happens that fruits from orchards having strong 
southern or western slopes is smaller than from orchards 
on the other sides. The dryness of soils on southern ex- 
posures may be easily controlled by the use of manures 
and cover crops, together with intelligent cultivation and 
handling of the soil. 

Large bodies of water, either a lake or river, has an 
ameliorating influence upon the climate in their immediate 
vicinity. Orchards on lands which slope towards large 
bodies of water are more immune from radical atmos- 
pheric changes. The slope on the side of such body of 
water towards which the prevailing winds blow is prefer- 
able, because the air in passing over the water becomes 
modified in temperature and its moisture content is in- 
creased. 

Location for a Commercial Orchard 

The location of a commercial orchard is a matter that 
varies widely with the local conditions, and is dependent 
largely on the part of the country, nearness to transpor- 



Location for a Commercial Orchard 



21 



tation and market, condition of the soil and water, alti- 
tude, latitude and climate and the kind of fruit to be grown. 
In selecting a location for a commercial orchard it is 
always best to get into a community where fruit is being 
grown commercially, as in such a location there will always 




This orchard, situated on rolling land and right along 
the railroad, has all that could be asked for in the way of 
site and location. 



be found the right conditions for that particular kind of 
fruit, as well as persons who are acquainted with the lo- 
cality and able to give reliable advice. 

With a commercial orchard, about the first consider- 
ation is the transportation facilities. It is always best to 
get where there are satisfactory means of carrying the 
product to market, and where one can have the advantage 



22 The Fru it-Growers Guide-Book 

of competing lines, such as two or more railroads or steam- 
boat lines. It is true that transportation lines will enter 
any section where there is business for them, but it takes 
many thousands of acres of fruit to produce enough busi- 
ness to induce a railroad to build into one's territory. It 
is always best to locate the markets and ways of reaching 
them, and then the location of the orchard can be more 
easily selected. 

In the eastern portion of the United States it is less 
difficult to get easy means of reaching one's market than 
it is in the far western states, and in such locations the 
matter of transportation may not be of such serious im- 
portance, as soil which is adapted to the particular kind 
of fruit that it is desired to grow. For the general run of 
our orchard fruits, soils which are not excessively wet, or 
too very sandy, will serve, although this may be varied to. 
some extent under local conditions. 

Altitude and latitude will affect the possibilities of com- 
mercial orcharding, directly as it influences the climate. 
In most of the mountainous sections of the country, how- 
ever, fruit growing cannot be carried on at an altitude 
much above 6,000 feet, as the growing season is generally 
too short for a crop of fruit to be matured. Climatic con- 
ditions influence the variety of fruit that may be grown, 
although the greatest orchard fruit, the apple, is grown in 
every state in the union and in every country in the world. 
It, however, has its climatic limitations as a commercial 
crop, doing better where the winters are cold and the sum- 
mers not too long and hot. In the Southern states the 
possibilities of apple orcharding are more limited than in 
the Northern states, and the list of varieties confined more 
particularly to the summer, or early maturing kinds. 
Peaches have limitations of much the same kind, as some 
types of peaches, the Peen-to especially, cannot be grown 
with satisfaction outside of the extreme southern Gulf 
coast country. 

The distance of the orchard from the shipping point 
has an influence in the loca'tion of the orchard, as the labor 
of transporting the fruit to the shipping point reduces the 
profits, and increases the danger of spoiling the fruit by 



Preparing Land for an Orchard 23 

bruising. In some of the Western states, where the fruit 
growers are well organized into compact communities, the 
growers find that it is best not to get farther than three 
miles under general conditions from the shipping point 
when peaches are to be handled. The apple grower, on the 
other hand, can get farther away than that, and the grower 
of strawberries may not profitably get so far away. Where 
the fruit producing area extends to a distance of several 
miles away from the railroad station, spur tracks can 
sometimes be constructed to reduce the distance. 

If* one is not acquainted with the possibilities of any 
particular location, when it comes to selecting the fruits 
for a commercial orchard, it is always best to consult with 
someone who is able to give the desired advice. Many 
mistakes can be thus avoided. 

Preparing Land for an Orchard 

A serious mistake that is commonly made in planting 
an orchard is to be in too great a hurry. An orchard is 
planted to last for years, and undue haste at the beginning 
will generally result in a shorter life for the trees. This 
great hurry to get the orchard planted is most apparent in 
lack of preparation of the soil. It takes time to put any 
soil in the best condition to receive the trees, and fre- 
quently, to get the trees planted as cheaply as possible, 
they are put into the ground before the soil is ready to 
receive them. This is especially true when orchards are 
planted on land from which the native growth has just 
been removed. 

Land that is to be planted to orchard should be under 
cultivation for at least two years before the trees are 
planted, and especially so on lands which have a heavy 
growth of timber. With such land all of the stumps and 
roots should be removed, and this can be done at a much 
smaller expense before the orchard is planted than after- 
wards. New land is always hard to cultivate, because of 
the roots which sprout and try to grow, and among young 
orchard trees such sprouts cause endless trouble until they 
are removed. It is best on such new land to plant some 



24 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

crop that must be cultivated, such as potatoes, corn, sugar 
beets or cotton, and follow this the second year with a le- 
guminous crop, such as cowpeas, soja beans or crimson 
clover. The cultivation necessary for such a crop as pota- 
toes will keep the soil so continually disturbed during the 
first summer that many of the roots will be dragged out 
and few of them will have a chance to grow. The heavy 
growth made the next season by the leguminous crop will 
so shade the soil that any sprouts that appear will be 
smothered out, so that they can make but little if any 
growth. This crop of legumes should not be cut for hay, 
but turned under, where their fiber will become humus. 
Most soils are deficient in humus, and especially in nitro- 
gen so that a two-fold purpose can be obtained by growing 
and plowing under a leguminous crop. 

Land which has been under cultivation a long time will 
be materially helped by having a crop of green manure 
plowed under, as old fields generally have the humus sup- 
ply so worn out as to be badly impoverished, and not in a 
fit condition for trees to do their best. A young orchard 
should make a strong and vigorous growth during the first 
few years so as to build up a large framework for fruit 
production, and this framework cannot be obtained on 
weak soil. The soil in an old pasture is generally excel- 
lent for an orchard, as it will contain a larger supply of 
humus and nitrogenous food materials than any other 
ordinary fields. 

In preparing the ground for an orchard it should be 
plowed as deep as possible, so as to loosen up the soil and 
make it possible for the tree roots to penetrate into the 
lower soil. Shallow rooted trees do not live long, and are 
easily influenced by dry weather. It is best to do every- 
thing to make the tree roots go deep into the soil, as they 
will thus have a better anchorage, and be nearer a more 
constant source of water than when the roots are allowed 
to run close to the surface. The land should be plowed 
in the fall and not less than six weeks before planting time 
if a very heavy crop is to be turned under. This is to give 
time for the crop to decay before the trees are planted. 
A\nien'a lieavy crop is turned under it is best in most cases 



26 The Fru it-Growers Guide-Book 

to wait until spring to do the planting. The soil will then 
be in the best condition and the planting can proceed rap- 
idly. 

Preparing Irrigated Land for Planting 

Most orchards in irrigated sections are planted in raw 
land, and when well and carefully done it is satisfactory, 
but when done by inexperienced and uninformed persons 
it does not always result in a good orchard. Raw irri- 
gated lands should be cultivated for at least one season 
with either grain or alfalfa, and are materially improved 
if a green manure crop is turned under the fall before 
planting. 

The land should be plowed thoroughly and deeply all 
over and not just down the tree rows. Fruit trees are 
shallow rooted at best in the majority of irrigated soils 
because of the dry and hard subsoil, and unless the soil is 
loosened up deep and the subsoil well soaked with water, 
the trees will not root as deeply as could be desired. 

Lands which settle after being put under irrigation 
should be thoroughly watered and settled before planting, 
and all irrigated lands should be perfectly leveled before 
the orchard is planted. This will materially assist in lay- 
ing out and planting the trees, and do away with releveling 
after the trees are planted. It is always best to plow the 
land in the fall and allow the soil to lay rough all winter. 
It will be loose and friable in the spring and be much 
more easily worked than if not fall plowed. Fall plowing 
has the additional advantage of enabling the soil to take 
up more of the winter precipitation, and hence it will water 
more easily when irrigation is attempted. It is often very 
difficult to get the water over spring plowed land the first 
time it is irrigated. 

Laying Out the Orchard 

The plan for laying out the orchard can be arranged 
in any manner that suits the convenience of the planter, 
although there are two systems that are in common use, 



Laying Out the Orchard 



27 



one of them being the square or rectangular, and the other 
the hexagonal system, or system of equilateral triangles. 

In the square system of planting, the trees are planted 
at right angles to each other and at the same distance 
apart each way, the distance apart varying according to 
the kind of tree and to the ideas of the planter. The hex- 
agonal system allows the maximum number of plants per 
acre at a given distance apart, being approximately 15 per 
cent more than in the square. 




These trees are set in perfectly straight rows. 



The great advantage of the square system is that it 
allows cultivation in either direction with the same ease. 
In the hexagonal system the trees are planted so that they 
have the same amount of space all around, and alternate 
in the rows, making the space between the rows narrower 
than the distance between the trees in the rows. The 
distance apart at which any variety of fruit should be set 
will depend largely on the distance at which the planter 
cares to set them, and to some extent on the habit of the 
variety and on the soil. Missouri Pippin and Wagener 
apples can be set closer together than varieties having the 
wide spreading habit of Mammoth Black Twig. 

With apples, the customary distance for planting varies 
somewhat with the section of the country, being wider 



2S 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



apart in the Eastern states than in the far Western. In 
the far Western states apples are frequently set as close 
as twenty feet, while in the extreme East they will be 
double or treble this distance. The usual, and perhaps the 
best distance apart for apples in commercial orchards, is 
about thirty feet. At this distance there will be ample 
room between the trees for a number of years after they 



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Diagram of an orchard with trees planted in squares. 
This system gives greatest amount of room between rows. 

come into bearing. With pears the distance can be some- 
what less, as most varieties are of a more upright habit 
than the apple. Peaches are generally set about eighteen 
or twenty feet apart, although when trained with an open 
center it crowds the trees after they have reached their 
maturity. 

Before laying out the orchard it is always best to figure 
out how the trees can be arranged to best advantage. They 
ought to be set so as to allow of ample room around the 



Laying Out the Orchard 2*cf 

sides to do the necessary work without crowding against 
the boundary fence. It is better always to plant the trees 
so that they have the same, or nearly the same, distance 
on all sides, rather than to have twice the distance in one 
direction as in the other. 

There are a number of different ways of laying out an 
orchard and some of the simple plans are very satisfactory. 
In using any plan the effort should be to get all of the 
trees set in perfectly straight rows, so that they may be 
sighted over in any direction and perfect rows can be seen. 
This is simply to improve appearances. 

Begin the rows sufficiently far inside the fence line to 
enable all operations to be done without crowding against 
the fence when the trees get large. This will vary a good 
deal with circumstances, but ought to be not less than 
twenty or twenty-five feet. 

Along one side of the orchard, say the north, lay off 
a line indicating with stakes that can be plainly seen. 
Along the east side of the orchard lay off another line at 
right angles with the first, and mark it plainly in the same 
manner. Lay off two more sets of lines in the same man- 
ner through the middle of the orchard and on the other 
two sides, making all lines at right angles and erecting 
substantial stakes that can be plainly seen. Along each of 
the lines now put in a stake at the exact place the tree is 
to occupy. This will make three guide stakes in every tree 
row, and with a plow following along each line of stakes 
the tree rows can be quickly laid off ready for planting. 
A shovel plow is most useful for this marking, especially 
where a large area is to be marked off at one time. 

Another plan that works very satisfactorily, but takes a 
little longer is to lay off the first rows as above described 
and instead of plowing lines across the field a small stake 
is placed at the exact spot a tree is to occupy. This has the 
advantage of enabling the planter to line up all of his rows 
perfectly straight before a tree is planted. In either case 
the holes are dug with a spade, and in the latter case the 
tree is set in the exact position of the stake by use of a 
board some three or four feet long having a hole in each 



10 



The Frult-Growers Guide-Book 



end and a notch in the middle. Before the stake is dis- 
turbed lay the board down so that the notch is at the stake, 
then drive a peg through the holes at the end of the board. 
The board can be removed and the hole dug without fur- 
ther care for the original stake. When the hole is ready 
place the board back over the pegs and place the tree in 
the notch, and it will occupy the same position exactly of 
the original stake. If the stakes are lined up perfectly, 



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— — _ One Acre _/l — /^ ^ 

Diagram of an orchard w^ith trees planted in triangles. 
This system gives a greater number of trees per acre than 
when planted m squares, but leaves less room between rows. 



the trees will also be in perfectly straight rows when the 
planting is finished. 

Where the trees are set in triangles, a common method 
for small plantations is to plant only one outside row. 
Then with a large triangular frame whose sides are the dis- 
tances between the trees in the triangle, is placed so that 
two corners are in contact with two trees in the row. At 
the third corner a third tree is set. By moving this tri- 



Laying Out the Orchard 31 

angle from tree to tree across the field and setting so that 
a tree is in exact contact with each corner, the trees will 
all line up perfectly and be in exact triangles. This method 
does not give perfectly straight rows unless used care- 
fully. AH trees must be in contact with the triangular 
frame each time. 



Laying Out an Orchard on Rough or Steep Hill Land 

It is a comparatively easy matter to lay out an orchard 
on land that is level or approximately so, but it is a dif- 
ferent matter where the ground is very rough or steep, 
and which may need to be terraced. In some of the moun- 
tain cove lands of the Eastern states planting in contours 
or terracing may be necessary in order to prevent the soil 
from being washed away, or to facilitate the tillage of the 
crops. In many instances these terraces can be easily 
constructed without the use of instruments, but in others 
a surveyor's level, or instruments of the same nature may 
have to be put into use, Mr. F. T. Meecham describes a 
home-made instrument called an " *A' level" that serves 
very well in laying out terraces on hill land as follows: 

"To construct an A level, use well-seasoned timber, 
pine being preferable because it is light and does not tend 
to warp. Take three pieces 10 feet long, 3 inches wide and 
y2 inch thick. Now lay on a level floor so as to get the 
instrument of a rod span. The rod is commonly used in 
measuring land and is generally best, as i^ gets over land 
faster than a ten-foot level. Drive two nails in the floor 
just a rod, or 16^ feet apart, saw off the ends of the two 
pieces to be used for legs so that the ends will rest on the 
floor. Now place one end of each leg against the nails 
and let the pieces cross above your head and just exactly 
over the center of the rod span. Put a bolt here through 
both pieces fasten them together at the point A then we 
have two legs of the level, AB and AC. Now take the third 
piece and use as the crossbar, DE. Fasten the piece DE 
to AC at about D, bolt so as to permit it to work easily. 
Now at F securely place a spirit level, such as you 
can get from almost any hardware store for 10 cents. 



32 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

Bring DE, at E end, to a point on leg AB, where the 
spirit level indicates level; then mark or put a hole 
through both for bolt to work in. This hole on AB leg we 
call zero, which means level. Now we wish to make a 
scale that will enable us to run a terrace having a fall 
anywhere from an inch to four inches. Let some one raise 
the foot of AB one inch and lower crossbar DE until level; 
then put a hole through AB leg, and call this hole No. 1. 
Now raise foot of AB two inches and put another hole in 
AB leg and call it No. 2, and so on until we make our scaje 
to four or five inches. The half-inch is then gotten by di- 
viding the distance between holes and numbering halves. 
Now we have an instrument made that should not cost 



Meecham's "A" Level. 

more than 50 cents at the outside, and will, if properly 
handled, suffice for most of this kind of work. 

"In terracing a field start about three feet from the top 
of the hill, and begin to lay off the first terrace. Usually 
about one or two inches fall to the rod will be sufficient. 
Try to put the second terrace so that it will be about three 
to four feet lower than the first, and so on down the hill 
until the whole field is terraced. Now, if a field has a 
swag about the center and water collects from both direc- 
tions in this swag, to avoid this begin the terrace in the 
swag and go both ways, providing there is a good outlet 
at each end. Lay off the terrace, giving one to two inches 
fall, as desired, by fastening the cross-bar DE at E in the 
hole giving the fall desired. Start at the point we have 
selected to begin, and let the short leg, or the leg with the 



Clearing Sage Brush Land 33 

scale on it, be iip-hill. The place for the terrace is found 
by raising the foot of the instrument up or down hill until 
the proper level is obtained, then let the boy carryiiig pegs 
stick one at the front end of the level; then go with the 
instrument to that point, and repeat same operation until 
?11 the terraces are laid off. When you come to a gully 
make half sets with the instrument and set up-grade stakes 
to tell how high to build the banks to prevent breaking 
over by heavy rains. Now walk back over the line of 
stakes and when a place is found where there is too short 
a turn in the terrace, straighten a little or give a more 
gentle curve by moving the upper stakes a little down 
hill; never move lower stakes uphill. 

"After the terrace has been staked out a furrow can be 
run connecting the stakes. If desired, the terrace can be 
listed up by throwing several furrows together and the 
trees planted on the terrace. In planting orchards on con- 
tours it is impossible to have the trees line-up as they 
would do on even land. The first row is set by simply 
spacing the trees along the contour at the regular distance 
desired. The second row is set by alternating, as nearly 
as possible, the trees with those in the first row. As 
the work of setting proceeds the trees in each row will be 
alternated with those in the row preceding it. On account 
of the variability of slope it will be found impossible to 
exactly alternate the trees. Occasionally a tree will have 
to be shifted one way or the other, or one left out, in order 
to keep the spaces between the trees fairly uniform." 

In irrigated sections land can be planted in contours 
and terraced, with the irrigation ditch flowing on the upper 
side of the terrace. This will let the water percolate 
through the soil to best advantage. In case the hillside is 
long it may not be necessary to water the lowermost rows 
as they will sub-irrigate. 

Clearing Sage Brush Land 

The method adopted by Western farmers in clearing 
their land of sage brush varies a good deal with the sec- 
0.) 



S4 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

tion of the country, and the means that may be at hand. 
It also varies to a greater or less extent with the condition 
of the land, whether the brush is thick or scattering, and 
whether the brush is large or small and whether the soil 
is dry or wet at the time the clearing is to be done. One 
of the commonest methods consists in what is known as 
the "railing and raking" system. This consists in dragging 
a heavy railroad rail back and forth over the land, mash- 
ing down the brush and pulling out more or less of it. 

These rail drags are generally home-made affairs, con- 
sisting of a 10x12 timber that may be about 12 feet long, 
to the edge of which is bolted the railroad rail or a heavy 
iron plate that is flat and the edge of which can be drawn 
down and sharpened to a cutting edge. On the opposite 
side of the timber fasten a little platform supported on 
shoes so that the front edge of the rail will dip forward 
and not slip over the brush without mashing it down or 
pulling it out. 

A lever can be conveniently arranged on the back of 
the frame so as to lift the cutting edge and let it free itself 
when clogged with brush. It will take four or six horses 
to pull such a drag, although this will depend largely on 
the condition of the soil and the brush, and the size of the 
horses. 

The land will have to be gone over several times in 
different directions with such a drag to get the brush loos- 
ened up, and when this is done the brush is gathered into 
windrows by means of a rake. This rake can be made 
from a heavy piece of timber in which steel teeth about 
two inches wide and half an inch thick are placed about 
six inches apart in the timber. This rake should be ar- 
ranged to dump when it gets clogged. With this rake, 
drag the brush into windrows and set on fire. Any brush 
that remains will need to be grubbed out with a grubbing 
hoe. 

Where the sage brush is small and scattering and the 
soil is not too hard and dry the brush may be plowed out. 
The plow for this purpose should be a 14 or 16-inch plow 
having the mould board removed, and using nothing but 



What Kind of Nursery Stock to Plant 35 

the share and land side. The share will need to be kept 
sharp and possibly have to be drawn down a little so as 
to hug the ground better. After the land has been plowed 
the brush can be dragged out with a rake into windrows 
for burning, and if the brush is not too heavy an ordinary 
sulky rake is very satisfactory. 

Land which is cleared from sage brush by grubbing is 
difficult to plow and harrow because of the roots that are 
in the soil. These may be so numerous in some fields that 
it will be necessary to rake them up and burn. 

What Kind of Nursery Stock to Plant 

There is always m'ore or less uncertainty in the minds 
of the inexperienced fruit growers as to the kind of nur- 
sery stock to buy. It always pays to get the best, and if 
the planter is uncertain whether to buy one-year-old stuff 
instead of two-year-old trees of the same variety it will 
pay to write to your state experiment station, or to The 
Fruit-Grower, and find out. The tendency is now for fruit 
growers to prefer the one-3^ear trees, rather than trees that 
are older. There are a number of advantages in this, as 
the trees are smaller and more easily handled, and the 
head has not been formed, leaving it possible to head the 
tree just at the height the orchard man wants it. In the 
Middle West and Western states a low-headed tree is most 
desired, as it facilitates all of the operations of carmg fv)r 
the trees throughout their life. In the Eastern states it 
has been the custom to head the trees high, often times 
above the head of the average man. It is a hard job to 
pick the fruit off of such trees, especially while they are 
young. But in general the trees of the Eastern states 
seem to be longer lived than the Western, and when these 
trees reach the age of fort}'^ 3'ears their lateral branches 
have so spread out that they hang down within easy reach, 
although the tops are high in the air. 

It sometimes happens that the buyer orders one-year- 
old trees, and when the order is delivered he has two-j'^ear- 
old trees, the side branches of which have been carefully 
removed, leaving a whip that looks quite like a one-year- 



36 The Frult-Growers Guide-Book 

old tree. Such trees cannot be handled to advantage, for 
as a rule they must be headed very much too high on ac- 
count of the lower limbs having been cut off, the very 
limbs that the orchard man wanted to form the head. 

It does not pay to buy trees just because they are 
•cheap. Good trees cost money to grow, and the buyer 
must expect to have to pay a good round price for good 
trees. Cheap trees, cheap just because the nurseryman 
wants to get rid of them, are too many times fit only for 
the scrap pile. Buj'^ nothing but good trees and then in- 
sist on having that kind. If you can visit the nursery and 
pick out your trees, so much the better. 

Time to Plant 

Fruit tree.s can be set out in either the late fall or early 
spring months. In the Western states spring planting is 
preferred, as the soil is then in much better condition and 
more easily worked than in the fall. But in the rest of the 
country the land is generally in good shape in the late fall, 
unless excessively wet or unusually dry. 

Fall planting has the advantage of getting the trees 
into their new location with the least amount of time in 
storage, and trees set out in the fall will make some root 
growth during the winter and be in good shape to start 
into growth in the spring. There is generally more time 
for planting in the fall than in the spring and the work can 
be done in better shape. 

When the planting must be deferred until spring care 
must be taken that the trees are set out at the earliest 
possible date. In rare instances it happens that the trees 
have started into growth slightly at the time of planting. 
Such condition is not serious, provided the trees have not 
been allowed to make a growth of a few inches before 
being planted. In any event it is always necessary to 
prune the tree back somewhat at the time it is set. This 
is done in order to equalize the balance between the roots 
and the top. In digging the trees from the nursery the 
greater portion of the root system is removed, and if the 
trees are planted without ^n equal reduction of the top 



How to Plant a Tree 37 

the roots will not be able to supply the large top with 
crude sap, and the trees will not make as strong a growth. 

The amount of cutting back of the tops that is neces- 
sary at the time a tree is set depends largely on the age of 
the tree, the kind, whether peach, apple, plum, etc. Peach 
trees are generally cut back to a whip; two-year-old ap- 
ples are usually shortened back not more than one-half; 
pears, plums, cherries, etc., when two-year-old stock is 
used, are cut back about one-third, and where one-year-old 
whips are used, the cutting back should as a rule be about 
one-third of the length of the tree. 

How to Plant a Tree 

Many persons inexperienced in handling trees lose a 
number of trees in setting an orchard because of their lack 
of skill or acquaintance with handling such plants. It 
must be remembered that from the time the trees leave 
the soil of the nursery until they are firmly planted in the 
orchard, the roots should be exposed to the air as little 
as possible, and especially to air that is moving rapidly, 
or which is dry. Trees should not be left with their roots 
exposed to the sun or wind any longer than can possibly 
be avoided. When waiting to be planted they should be 
heeled in, that is, have their roots covered with moist soil, 
and should be taken out only as actually needed for im- 
mediate planting. Where it is necessary to transport a 
number of trees from the heeling-in grounds to the or- 
chard, it is best to pack the trees in a tight wagon box, 
mixing the roots with a plentiful supply of wet straw. 
Small quantities of trees may be placed in a barrel contain- 
ing a little water. In the Western states it is a common 
practice to load the trees into a barrel filled with water and 
then as a tree is planted to pour a little of the water around 
the roots of the tree before the hole is filled with soil. 

The hole that is dug for the tree should be large 
enough so that the roots may be spread out naturally, 
M'ithout any crowding. These holes need not be very wide 
but need to be deep enough to allow the tree to be set a 
little deeper than it stood in the nursery. All of the long- 



38 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

est roots need to be shortened in to about six inches and 
cut with a smooth clean cut. Any roots that are broken 
or bruised need to be removed, and all cut surfaces need 
to be made smooth so they will heal quickly. 

Filling in the soil about the trees is a very important 
step in tree planting. To get the best results the soil must 
be packed closely about the roots, so that there are no air 
holes or crevices. The best way to do this is with the 
hand. When the tree is in place spread the roots out 
and throw a shovelful of soil over them, shake the tree up 
and down several times and then work it into the crev- 
ices between the roots with the fingers. Throw in a little 
more soil and work into the remaining crevices, and 
then with the feet tramp the soil solid. Throw in 
more soil and tramp, repeating until the hole is full and 
the dirt about the tree is packed down solid and tight. 
Moving the tree up and down while the earth is being 
thrown in will assist materially in avoiding air holes and 
in bringing the soil in close contact with the roots. There 
is little danger of packing the soil too tightly about the 
roots. The greatest danger is in not getting it packed 
tightly enough and leaving air holes that will let the roots 
dry out and the tree die. 

The trees should be set just a little deeper than they 
stood when in the nursery, although not over an inch 
deeper. Setting too deep is as dangerous as not setting 
deep enough. The best guide is the line marking the 
change in color of the bark at the crown where the tree 
enters the ground. 

After the tree has been firmly packed in the hole throw 
an inch or so of loose earth over the packed soil to serve 
as a dust mulch and prevent from drying out. Watering 
at the time the tree is planted is not necessary in the East- 
ern or Middle Western states, but in the semi-arid country, 
where the trees cannot be irrigated immediately after be- 
ing planted, it is often advisable to pour a bucketful of 
water about the newly planted tree. This should be done 
before the hole is filled with soil, and the water allowed 
to percolate away. Then fill up with the dry soil and do 



Use of Fillers 31) 

not pack the surface, but rather let this soil lie loose and 
prevent the water from evaporating. A dust mulch will 
very effectively conserve the moisture in the soil for the 
use of the tree. 

Use of Fillers 

• 

The use of "fillers," or temporary trees, in an orchard 
is not always to be recommended. Such trees can in many 
instances serve a useful purpose, but they too often be- 
come permanent. After they come into bearing the 



o o o o o o o 
• •#••• 

o o o o o o o 

o#o#o*o#o#o#o 

o#o#o#o#o#o#o 

Diagram of an orchard planted with "fillers." The black 
spots represent the temporary trees. In the upper portion of 
the diagram the fillers are in the centers of the squares, 
making the "quincunx" system of planting. In the lower 
rows the fillers are In the rows of permanent trees. 

owner always wants just one more crop from them before 
they are removed. Years pass by in this way and the 
orchard becomes so crowded that the yield from all the 
trees is less than from what the permanent trees would be 
if the fillers were out. 

When the kinds of trees to be used as fillers are careful- 
ly selected and then removed at the right time they can be 
made profitable. Peaches can sometimes be used as fillers 
in an apple orchard, if the soil and climate are suitable. 



40 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

Pears are not advisable as fillers, especially in an apple 
orchard, on account of their susceptibility to fire blight, 
which can be communicated to the apple trees. 

Quick maturing varieties of apples make the best fillers 
in an apple orchard, and especially so if the fillers have 
an upright habit, such as Missouri Pippin, Wagener, or 
Rome Beauty. Such kinds can be handled to advantage 
in an orchard laid out on the rectangular plan, with the 
filler in the center of the square. This will double the 
number of trees per acre, and give each tree the maximum 
of room. It is not so easy to plant fillers to advantage 
when the orchard is laid out on the hexagonal plan with- 
out crowding the trees. 

A common and satisfactory method of arranging fillers 
is to set the permanent apple trees thirty feet apart, with 
a filler midway between the trees in one direction only. 
This will put the trees 15x30 feet apart. 

While good returns can be made from the fillers in 
an orchard, it is safe to say that practically as good re- 
turns can be made by using crops of other kinds. In 
small orchards some of the small fruits, such as straw- 
berries, blackberries or currants are good money makers. 
In large orchards it is better to grow some kind of cover 
crop and work towards building up a large framework and 
strong trees that will be heavy bearers when they come 
into fruiting, rather than to try to get an extra amount of 
fruit from the temporary trees. 

One of the great dangers of intermixed planting is that 
nine persons out of ten will not take the fillers out when 
they ought to. There is danger in it to the whole enter- 
prise and the system should be recommended ver}'^ guard- 
edly, if at all. Peaches should not be planted among apples 
as a rule. Tt is better to stick to one kind of fruit. 

Orchard Tillage 

The style of tilling used in the Eastern and Western 
fruit sections are vastly different. In the Western sec- 
tions, where irrigation is practiced, clean cultivation is in- 



Orchard Tillage 41 

variably the rule, and the soil is often cultivated continu- 
ously year after year until every trace of humus has been 
consumed and the soil bakes after each irrigation so hard 
that it takes a good sharp pick to make a hole in it. In 
the. Eastern states, where rainfall is abundant, it is a com- 
mon practice to sow the orchard down to grass, and allow 
it to remain in sod for a number of years. Either prac- 
tice alone is not the ideal which the modern orchardist 
■ should follow. 

The excessive cultivation as practiced in the irrigated 
sections burns the humus out of the soil, making it very 
difficult to work in the course of a few years. Under the 
cloudless skies and burning sun of those regions the trees 
are in a continual glare of light, and the reflected light 
from the soil has a tendency to cause more or less sun 
scalding on the trunks and lower limbs of the trees. The 
continual cultivation not only wears out the soil, but wears 
out the trees as well. The tendency of trees in the irri- 
gated sections of the West is to overbear, and the con- 
tinuous cultivation stimulates this condition. 

On the other hand, the sod mulch, or as too many times 
happens, the weed mulch, of the rainy sections, harbors, 
a multitude of orchard pests that sooner or later bring de- 
struction to the trees, unless means are taken to prevent 
their depredations. The ideal system of cultivation for 
any orchard, either East or West, is to combine the tillage 
Avith a cover crop. Stirring the soil is a necessity, not 
only for the purpose of improving the physical condition 
of the soil, but for liberating the fertility. In soils that 
are plowed early in the spring air is admitted and the soil 
v/armed up and drained of excess moisture through evap- 
oration. In summer the plowed layer serves as a means 
of preventing the evaporation of moisture that is deeper 
doAvn in the soil, by breaking the capilarity. It also in- 
creases the water holding capacity of the soil. By increas- 
ing the moisture in the soil decomposition of the organic 
materials is hastened, and their fertility made available 
for the use of the plants. 

The exact manner of cultivation in an orchard will be 
governed largely by the kind of trees and the location. 



42 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



It is best in most instances to put the young orchard into 
a crop of some sort which will necessitate the cultivation 
of the land. Crops like corn, cotton, potatoes, strawber- 
ries, cantaloupes, or other crops of that nature make ex- 
cellent crops in a newly planted orchard. These crops are 
temporary, and are planted for the profit that can be ob- 
tained from them. Their culture is intensive and requires 




An Orchard in Clean Cultivation. 

a frequent stirring of the soil, and these are just the con- 
ditions which are needed for the young trees. During the 
first few years of an orchard the effort should be directed 
along the line of promoting as much wood growth as pos- 
sible, in order to get a large framework for the future pro- 
duction of fruit. A tree that is starved and stunted in its 
early life will not make a productive tree when it comes 
into bearing. 



Orchard Tillage 43 

Where strawberries are grown between young trees 
they will occupy the ground for at least three years, after 
which time they should be plowed under, and the land 
planted to clover or some other legume. This is for the 
purpose of restoring nitrogen to the soil and stimulating 
the wood growth of the trees. Where corn, cotton or 
other "hoed" crop is grown, the land will be occupied b}^ 
any one crop no longer than one year. It is considered 
to be the best practice not to plant the same kind of crop 
in the orchard for more than two years in succession. In 
fact soil experts will advise that any particular crop occupy 
the land but one year and then be followed by a crop of 
jp different sort. This is because the soil quickly becomes 
impoverished where one kind of crop is repeatedly grown 
on the same area. In the young orchard this is especially 
true, as the trees are to remain for many years and the 
soil's fertility must not be reduced. A good rotation of 
crops in a young orchard is to plant cotton or corn the 
first season and follow with potatoes the next year, fol- 
lowing it the next season with a legume of some kind. 

Vegetables of all kinds may be grown in a young or- 
chard in place of the crops mentioned, and will serve well 
in keeping the ground of the orchard well stirred and the 
trees growing thriftily. Sugar beets are extensively used 
in the irrigated districts, but are not always desirable be- 
cause of the late watering that is needed to get the beets 
to mature. This late watering induces late growth in the 
trees and makes them liable to winter killing. 

Under no condition should small grain be planted in an 
orchard, as it will not permit of cultivation, and cultiva- 
tion is necessary in a young orchard for reasons which 
have been mentioned. This statement applies to the grow- 
ing of a grain crop that is to be allowed to reach maturity 
and be harvested either as grain or hay. Rye, wheat, oats 
and buckwheat are frequently planted in an orchard, but 
they are used altogether for green manures and under 
the best systems of culture are not allowed to remain for 
more than a few weeks, or over winter at the longest. 

In plowing the ground in a young orchard, the plows 
should be run six or eight inches deep, so as to provide a 



44 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

deep covering of plowed soil, and to cut the surface roots 
of the new trees, and make them penetrate into deeper 
soil where they will be cooler during the hot summer 
weather and away from the freezing of the winter's cold 
and into a zone of more regular supply of moisture. 

When it comes to the bearing orchard, no crops are 
grown to be removed. If any crop is grown it is for the 
purpose of being turned under and adding to the fertility 
and humus supply of the soil. It takes an immense amount 
of soil fertility to provide a bearing orchard with the 
foliage and wood each year, and it takes a still larger sup- 
ply to furnish the fruit. Under such conditions it is too 
much to ask the orchard ground to produce a crop of some 
other sort when that crop returns nothing to the land. 

The bearing orchard does best when the soil is plowed 
in the spring as soon as it can be worked, and then 
kept in cultivation until at least mid-summer, when a crop 
of some sort is planted to serve as a shade or cover crop. 
Professors Whipple and Paddock have pointed out to the 
orchardists of the irrigated sections of the West the nnpor- 
tance of growing a shade crop in their orchards, not alone 
for the improvement it wnll produce in the physical condi- 
tion of the soil, but to shatie the ground and prevent 
reflection of the sunlight and scalding the branches. 

With the system of tillage practiced by Western fruit 
raisers the humus supply of the soil is depleted quickly, 
and because of this becomes light colored. Running the 
irrigation ditches close to the trees on hot sunny days in 
summer has caused the death of many trees by stm-scald- 
ing, because of the light reflected from the surface of the 
water in the ditches. The shade crops are planted early in 
the summer and serve to lessen the reflection from the soil, 
and from the water in the ditches. 

Stirring the soil by plowing or discing has the effect 
of stimulating wood growth. If the cultivation is con- 
tinued too late in the summer there is a possibility of the 
trees continuing to grow so late that they will go into 
winter with wood that has not been properly ripened, and 
may in consequence not be able to stand the cold. With 



Cover Crops 45 

trees that are easily attacked by fire blight, as pears and 
quinces, soft wood, such as is produced by continuous cul- 
tivation, is not desired, because of the immense damage 
that can be caused by blight. Pear orchards are frequently 
planted to a permanent sod early in the life of the orchard, 
simply for the purpose of preventing very soft wood. 

Orchards need to be plowed early in the spring and cul- 
tivated until midsummer when they are sowed down to a 
cover crop that is to remain on the soil during the winter 
to be turned under the next spring. In the case of dry 
seasons when the normal precipitation is scarce, tillage 
throughout the summer will conserve the moisture in the 
soil, and by plowing the ground late in the fall and allow- 
ing to remain rough all winter a still larger amount of 
water can be stored up in the soil than if left smooth and 
level. 

Cover Crops 

Cover crop, called also green manures and shade crops, 
arc such crops as are grown in the orchard for the purpose 
of clothing the surface of the soil during late summer and 
winter months. They are used to protect the soil from 
washing during the winter rains, and for this reason are 
always to be advised for orchards that are on steep', hilly 
land. In the arid section of the West they serve to cover 
the soil and protect it from the sun, thereby guarding 
somewhat against sun-scalding of the trees. They increase 
the humus supply when plowed under, and make available 
or conserve the mineral elements of fertility that might 
otherwise be leached out of the soil. This is especially 
true of the soluble nitrates. When some sort of legumi- 
nous plant is used for a cover crop it adds nitrogen to 
the soil. 

Cover crops increase the water holding capacity of the 
soil through the addition of humus, and thereby improve 
the tilth and prevent the puddling and baking of the soil. 
On this account alone cover crops, or rather shade crops, 
are useful in the orchards of the irrigated sections. There 



46 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

the custom has been of continuous cultivation, with the 
result that the tilth of the soil is ruined and that it bakes 
badly after each irrigation. 

Cover crops are of three kinds: (1) Those grown in 
seasons between other crops; (2) those which occupy the 
land for one or more seasons before they are plowed un- 
der; (3) those which are sown late in the season for the 
purpose of protecting the soil during the winter. 

In general orchard practice cover crops are sown late 
in the summer and allowed to remain throughout the 
winter when they are to be turned under the following 
spring and become a green manure. For such purposes 
a number of different kinds of crops are used, depending 
largely on the soil, climate and the needs in hand. 

Winter rye is one of the most useful cover crops for 
the orchard. It may be sown at any time from the mid- 
dle of August until November, and grows all winter where 
the climate is not too severe, resuming growth again early 
in the spring. It is very efficient in gathering the soluble 
nitrates that might be leached from the soil. It is especi- 
ally well suited for light soils. 

Buckwheat and oats are sometimes used, especially in 
the Northern states, but they are killed by the winter 
weather and need to be planted early in order to get a 
good cover over the soil before winter. 

Winter vetch is useful on the medium loamy soils and 
is hardy as far north as Massachusetts in well drained 
locations. It is a legume, and consequently increases the 
nitrogen supply in the soil. It does best when sown with 
rye, and is not well adapted to stand hot weather. 

Canada field peas are used as cover crops in the North- 
ern states, and in the higher altitudes of the West where 
the climate is cool. They are very effective where they 
thrive. 

Crimson clover is useful in sections where it will do 
well as along the eastern part of the United States. South 
of New Jersey it is hardy, but north it is uncertain. It is 



Cover Crops 47 

a deep rooting legume, which opens up the subsoil and 
adds nitrogen. 

The common red and mammoth clover are used very 
extensively as cover crops, although they require the use 
of the land for two seasons. They are deep rooting, gather 
nitrogen from the air and are hardy. They make a heavy 
growth of tops and generally need to be mown during 
the first summer. It should be the practice in most cases 
where clover is grown for a cover crop to not remove the 
hay, but allow it to remain in the orchard where cut to 
add to the humus supply. But where the soil is already 
quite well supplied with humus there is no objection to 
the removal of the hay. The clover should be turned under 
in the spring of the third year. 

Sweet clover is used in a small way in some parts of 
the country as a cover or green manuring crop. Alfalfa, 
however, finds a much wider range of adaptability and is 
extensively used among the irrigated orchards of the 
Western states. It must be plowed under during the 
second j^ear, otherwise the roots become so woody as to 
make plowing very difficult. 

In the Southern states the cowpea takes first rank as 
a cover crop for orchard lands. It makes a rank growth, 
roots deeply and gathers nitrogen from the air. It is 
killed by the first frost, but its coarse herbage makes an 
excellent ground cover during the winter. It can be sown 
late in August and still make a good cover before being 
killed by freezing weather. 



48 The Fruit-Growers Gulde-Book 



CHAPTER II 



Orchard Heating 

Every orchardist is agreed that spraying is an absolute 
necessity in order to produce fruit free from the defects 
caused by insects and fungi. Yet spraying as a commer- 
cial proposition is of only recent adoption, dating no 
farther back than 1872, when Le Baron, the state entomol- 
ogist of Illinois, found that Paris green would control the 
potato beetle. Spraying began to be of commercial value 
in ]885 when the effectiveness of copper spraj's was dis- 
covered by the vineyardists of France. Yet there is a 
still newer practice, viz: orchard heating, which is bound 
to take rank on a par with the practice of spraying as a 
means of securing crops of fruits against an unfavorable 
environment. 

New Idea 

Orchard heating as a commercial proposition is of very 
recent origin, although for many "years fruit men and 
gardeners have tried various plans of preventing frost 
from injuring their plants and blossoms. Some of these 
attempts was by keeping the trees sprayed during the 
winter with whitewash, under the belief that since the 
whitewash would reflect much of the sun's rays the wood 
of the trees would not get so warm during sunshiny days 
of winter, and hence retard the development of the fruit 
buds. However, such methods in practice would hold the 
buds back for only three or four days behind those trees 
which were not sprayed, while the danger period in spring 



Influence of Environment 49 

would probably remain for as much as a month or six 
weeks. 

Another method which had some advocates, and which 
is still practiced in some sections, although with but little 
commercial success, is the mulching of the ground very 
heavily in late spring before the frost leaves the soil. 
Another plan is to heap the snow around the roots and 
trunks of the trees, or, as one fruit grower in the region 
of the Cascade Mountains has done, to actually haul ice 
from the mountains and pack it around the trees in an 
effort to prevent tiie trees from starting into growth in 
the spring until after the danger period had passed. Such 
n^eans, however, have not given success, for the reason 
that the branches of a plant can start into growth inde- 
pendently of root action, provided the branches are in a 
suitable temperature. Any person can prove this to his 
own satisfaction by pulling the branches of a tree or vine 
into a warm room lale in the winter and blocking up 
around the opening through which it is passed to keep out 
the cold air. The roots may be frozen solid, but in the 
course of a few days the buds will start into growth, and 
may actually come into blossom. The only way in which 
a mulch packed over frozen ground to prevent its thawing 
out early, or storing snow and ice in the orchard could 
effect the blooming period of the trees, would be directly 
dependent on the way in which such means affected the 
temperature of the atmosphere surrounding the buds. 

Influence of Environment 

• The relation which any district will bear to frostiness 
will depend to a great extent on the natural surroundings. 
Nearness to large bodies of water has a great influence on 
frost, and some sections, even though they are far north, 
have very mild climates and with a minimum of frosty 
days in late spring. I« the northern part of the state of 
Washington, and in southern British Columbia, the climate 
is mild, considering the high latitude, due to the influence 
of the chinook winds which pass over the region directly 



50 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

off the warm waters of the Japan current that sweeps 
the Pacific coast. The eastern shore of Lake Michigan 
has a warmer climate than the opposite side, on account 
of the lake currents which keep open water on the eastern 
side while the other shore is ice bound. 

On account of the movements of warm currents of air 
oranges are being grown in the southeastern corner of 
North Carolina, two hundred miles north of the northern- 
most place at which it is considered safe to grow this fruit 
on the Atlantic coast. This is because the warm waters 
of the gulf stream come in close to shore at this portion of 
the coast and the temperature of the air is less frosty than 
farther south. 

Natural prominences, such as high bluffs which absorb 
the heat of tiie sun during the day and then radiate it 
slowly at night have a great effect in ameliorating the 
night temperature in small localities, although this influ- 
ence cannot be counted of any serious value in protecting 
an orchard against late frosts in the spring. In the moun- 
tain sections of the Western states districts near the 
mouths of great canons are frequently safe from serious 
damage from frost in late spring on account of the con- 
tinual breeze which flows or blows out of the canons dur- 
ing the night. These breezes come from the cooler air 
which surrounds the high tops of the mountains, flowing 
down their sides into the lower grounds in the valleys. 

While natural conditions are of material assistance, 
they cannot be depended upon as being of absolute cer- 
tainty in protecting" against frost, for the vagaries of air 
currents and frostless belts are as uncertain as the flight 
of a bird. In many fruit producing districts there are 
ardent promoters of certain areas as being frostless, be- 
cause cf some natural condition which provides favorable 
air currents or temperatures at critical times. However, 
it may be but a short time until those conditions change 
and the frostless area is seriously damaged by a freeze. 
It was not many years ago that the orange growers in 
Florida belie\ ed that the southern limit of frost was at 
the northern boundary of that state. However, in 1895 it 



Influence of Environment 



51 



was demonstrated to the sorrow and dismay of thousands 
of orange men that even half way down the peninsula was 
not safe from frost, as in one night a cold blast from the 
north came and the "big freeze" on which the pomologi- 




Troutman Oil Burning Orchard Heaters Properly Distributed. 



cal chronology of Florida is founded, made hundreds of 
families homeless and hopeless. In every fruit district in 
fact it is expected at times to have an untimely frost cause 
damage of greater or less extent to the fruit crops. 



52 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

Water as an Aid 

Water has often been used as a means of preventing 
frost to plants, through the large amount of heat which 
can be stored up in it to be liberated more slowly in the 
field. In the irrigated sections of the West this method 
has been used to a large extent in some districts, although 
with but little real success. Spraying the plants with a 
continuous spray of water, however, has proven to be 
satisfactory, although finding little application just yet out- 
side of the garden. That this system can be used to ad- 
vantage though, is very evident in some sections of the 
South where truck patches and orange groves are provided 
with an overhead irrigation system, in which the water is 
carried at a high pressure and is applied through spray 
nozzles located at intervals of a few feet throughout the 
length of the pipe. Celery has been saved in this manner 
when the temperature reached as low as 12 degrees. Where 
a grower is equipped with such a watering system it is a 
comparatively simple matter to provide a heating device 
where the water can be heated as it is run through the 
pipes and plants be safely carried through a very hard 
freeze with entire safety. 

Irrigation, either in ditches or overhead, cannot be re- 
plied on at all times as providing against low temperatures, 
and either system has many disadvantages. But horticul- 
turists have another means of providing against frost dam- 
age by means of heating the air in the orchard or garden 
-by means of numerous small fires. In the commercial 
Orchards this method is the result of modern ingenuity 
striving to overcome some of the enormous losses which 
fruit growers have met with through the damage wrought 
by late frosts in spring. 

Development of Modern Frost Fighting 

In the Yearbook of the United States Department of 
Agriculture for 1909 Prof. G. B. Brackett, in an article on 
"Prevention of Frost Injury to Fruit Crops," briefly traces 
the development of means of fighting frosts. One of the 



Development of Modern Frost Fighting 53 

early methods used by fruit growers to protect their fruit 
from injury through unfavorable climatic conditions, was 
used by a vineyardist in Austria, who resorted to the tise 
of explosives to dispel threatening hail storms. The region 
was one where hail storms were prevalent and wrought 
destruction to the grape crops. Mr. Albert Stiger, burgo- 
master, VVindisch-Briestrits, Austria, owned extensive vine- 
yards, and decided to drive away the threatening storms by 
firing small charges of powder from wooden mortars 
towards the storm clouds. These explosions had a ten- 
dency to break up the stratum of cold air and prevent its 
settling in the low ground. The experiments were con- 
tihued for some time and were considered as successful. 

It is a well known fact among farmers and fruit men 
that injury to plants after a frost is always more serious 
when the plants are allowed to thaw out rapidly. This 
observation led to many early experiments in devising 
means of shading crops so as to guard them from the 
early morning sun following the spring frosts. Smudges 
of many kinds were used for this purpose, the attempt 
being to make an artificial cloud over the orchard to shade 
the crops until after they had thawed out slowly. Com- 
bustible matter capable of producing an abundance of thick 
black smoke was used for this purpose. Heaps of fuel for 
this purpose were scattered through the fruit plantation, 
and at sunrise were set on fire to form a veil of smoke 
over the orchard to protect it from the rays of the sun, 
and also to prevent the radiation of heat from the earth's 
surface; thereby maintaining the general temperature at a 
point which would counteract the effect of frost. 

A gentleman living in Bordeaux, France, invented a 
process of making thick black smoke for this purpose. 
This consisted of small wooden boxes, open at the top 
and filled with a compound consisting of equal parts of 
resinous and earthy substances reduced to a fine powder 
and compressed into a compact mass. A wick was placed 
in the center of the mass and served to light it. The boxes 
containing this mixture were made of pine wood and were 
eight inches long and six inches square and were placed 



54 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

thirty feet apart in the vineyard. This scheme possibly led 
to the various smudging devices used in the orange grow- 
ing sections of this country. -^ 

Vapor smudges were used first in this country and 
accredited to a Californian named Aleacham. Small areas 
were covered with wet straw, manure and cypress brush, 
and ihe vapors furnished b}^ these piles, when set on fire, 
together with the vapor from evaporating pans, was cal- 
culated to furnish sufficient vapor to cover the desired 
areas. This method gave little satisfaction, for several 
reasons. It necessitated the co-operation of every land 
owner in the region and the vapors even then would rap- 
idly disappear into space. The vapor, too, was lifted high 
above the ground by the cold air flowing over the surface 
from higher altitudes. 

The fruit growers of California seem to have been the 
most active in this early work of protecting against frost 
injury to their fruits. Edward Copley is credited with 
having invented a device for burning coal in baskets to be 
scattered through the orchard fastened to the limbs of the 
trees. This system proved satisfactory, but had its limi- 
tations. 

Briquets, composed of oil-refinery refuse, sawdust and 
low-grade oil were pressed into a tube and used with or 
without a wnck. Cheap sheet iron stoves in which the 
briquets were burned then came into use, and proved still 
better than any of the devices yet introduced. 

The next stage in the evolution of orchard heaters 
seems to have been an oil heater first manufactured at 
Fresno, Calif., and since its invention there have been a 
great many other styles put on the market. 

Colorado has come to the front in this work of devel- 
oping frost fighting methods, and through the efforts of 
the orchardists of that great state the present methods of 
orchard heating have been brought to commercial perfec- 
tion. 



Development of Modern Frost Fighting 
Oil and Coal for Fuel 



55 



From the experiments that have been carried on there 
?.nd elsewhere it seems apparent that the source of heat 
must come from any one of three available sources viz., 
wood, oil and coal. Which of these to use will depend 
on the cost of the fuel laid down in the orchard. In sec- 




Filling "Ideal" Coal Burning Orchard Heaters, 



tions where wood is still the most abundant and cheapest 
fuel, it will be the best to use. In sections where oil can 
be had cheaper than coal or wood, it will serve; and in 
other sections coal will be the cheapest fuel. 

Doubtless at the present time more persons are using 
coal for fuel in some way than any other material, and 



56 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

are more familiar with its combustion. In the work of 
orchard heating it has given great satisfaction, and many 
hundreds of acres of orchards have been kept from frost 
ruin b}^ coal burners. 

When oil costs 3 cents per gallon, and coal can be 
had for $5.00 per ton, it is the opinion of persons who are 
sufficiently experienced that coal is the cheaper fuel. 
Heaters are so constructed that they will burn about five 
pounds per hour, and at this rate, a heater holding fifty 
pounds will burn through most any one of the cold nights 
in spring without the necessity of refilling. 

One of the great advantages in using coal for fuel, is 
that no expensive storage tanks are necessary, and no 
special equipment needed to enable the orchard man to 
carry it to the pots in the orchard. It can be kept in a 
pile at a convenient place in the orchard, merely covered 
with canvas or boards to protect it from the weather. 
Where oil is used some special means of storing must be 
had, such as a cement cistern or large iron tank, or even 
in numerous barrels, and for distribution there needs to 
be a special tank wagon. Coal, on the other hand, can be 
hauled in an ordinary wagon box, or what is better in a 
low sled, so as to enable one to get at the coal with the 
least amount of labor. 

Heaters of this class require some special fuel for start- 
ing the fires, and this is most easily obtained from kindling 
made from broken-up bits of pine or from the tree trim- 
mings that have been kept in a dry place. A bit of cotton 
waste should be soaked in oil and placed in the bottom of 
the heater, and on top of it a generous amount of kindling, 
with the coal on top of that. Egg or small lump coal is 
the best and should be handled with a fork so as to avoid 
the slack and small pieces that clog the fire and make it 
burn too slowly. The coal should be piled in the heater 
so as to leave the center open and afford a draft, and also 
to allow some of the coal to remain on the side of the 
heater, where it will be in reserve. 

With coal burning heaters it is the general experience 
ihat fifty per acre will generally suffice to hold the tem- 



Oil and Coal for Fuel 



57 



perat'.ire up about 10 degrees above the minimum during 
the frosty period. The greater number of the heaters 
should go around the outer rows of the orchard with a 
smaller proportionate number through the middle. This 
arrangement protects the outside rows, which in turn keep 
the middles from low temperatures, and also enables the 
workmen to handle the heaters with the smallest amount 
of labor. 




A Cement Tank used for Storing- Oil. 



Heaters need not be distributed until about the time 
the buds are beginning to open, and should remain in the 
orchard until well after the last frost has passed. The 
fires need not be lighted until the temperature has reached 
the freezing point, and if it is well past midnight, only 
about half of the heaters need be lighted on the start, so 
as to hold the remainder in reserve, and to economize on 
coal. Where the work has been arranged for in advance, 
and has been systematized, many growers have found that 
two men can look after the heaters on three acres. 



ns The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

In using- oil as a fuel the largest item of expense, after 
the purchase of the fire pots and the oil, is the storage 
tank for the oil. Enough oil should be on hand at the 
beginning of the season to last through any possible cold 
snap that might come. This will mean that all of the oil 
will hardly be used in any one season, and perhaps good 
fortune will smile on the fruit grower and make it un- 
necessary to heat over a period of years. However it is 
highly necessary to have both heaters and fuel on hand 
in the case of an emergency. The most convenient way 
to store the oil is in a large storage tank located on an 
elevation such as a hillside where the oil can be emptied 
into the storage tank by gravity and withdrawn into the 
tank wagon or heaters in a similar manner. Lifting the 
oil out of the tanks with a pump is both laborious and 
costly, so that where the oil can be handled by running it 
down hill h is cheapest to do it that way. 

Use Enough Heaters 

It is advisable to have more heaters distributed through 
the orchard than will possibly be needed on any night. 
The advantage of this is that when the fires are recjuired 
about one of every three pots can be lighted, and if there 
is danger of the temperature dropping still lower, and 
this many pots will not keep the temperature up to the 
desired point, there are still others to be lighted. 

Whatever heaters are used, they should by all means 
be properly distributed throughout the orchard a few days 
before there is possibility of having to put them into use. 
They will need to be covered to prevent water getting on 
the fuel, as it will cause trouble. Coal that is wet will not 
ignite easily, and at best it is slow and troublesome to set 
on fire. With the oil, if water gets into it it will spatter 
and possibly fry or boil over on to the ground and not 
make as. satisfactory a fire as when it is kept perfectly 
dry. Nearly all of the various makes of heaters that are 
on the market are provided with lids to protect the fuel 
from rain or snow. With some of them, however, it is 



Cost of Heating ' 59 

necessary to weight the lid down with a clod or stone to 
keep it from being blown away in a hard wind. 

Cost of Heating 

The expenses of heating an orchard will depend alto- 
gether on a variety of circumstances that vary with each 
orchard and each season. But the entire problem is nicely 
summed up by a practical orchardist on the western slope 
of Colorado, who makes this statement in The Fruit- 
Grower for Januar}-, 1911: 

"My calculations of the expenses of heating an orchard, 
taken from my own experience, are as follows, based on 
a ten-acre orchard: 

800 heaters at -l.Jc each $360.00 

?> 1,200 gal. storage tanks at $50 each 1 50.00 

1 wagon tank 35.00 

1 oil pump 17.50 

2 oil pails at G5c each 1.30 

6 torches 40 

100 pounds waste 8.00 

4,000 gallons oil at 5c gallon 200.00 

Total first cost of equipment $763.20 

*'Now suppose we go on for ten years, for of course 
we are going to keep this outfit always in readiness, and 
we must allow $100 per year to keep our supply of fuel. 
We then have $900 more, making a total expenditure in 
ten years of $1,662.20, or an average of $166.22 per year 
for ten years. This is a cost of $16.62 per acre, making 
the cost from 15 to 25 cents per tree each year depending 
on the number of trees per acre. 

"If I had a bearing orchard that I did not think would 
stand this expense, I would pull it out and grow potatoes, 
sugar beets or hay." These figures while illustrating very 
nicely the cost of equipment for heating, will vary in dif- 
ferent localities according to the cost of the storage tanks, 
style of heater and the cost of oil, but such figures enable 



60 'The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

one to get an approximate idea of the first cost of equip- 
ping an orchard for heating. The additional expenses of 
the operation will depend on the number of nights the 
heaters will be used, and the cost of the labor. As a rule 
the heaters are needed for four or five nights in the sprmg 
and with oil heaters it is the general experience that one 
man can take care of five acres while it will take possibly 
two. men to handle that many acres where coal burners are 
used. 

During the next ten years there will no doubt be as 
great a development in the styles of orchard heaters in 
use by the commercial orchardists as there are in the 
styles of spraying machines that are in use today, and 
which were in use ten years ago. This is to be easily sur- 
mised as the heaters, both coal and oil, which are now in 
use are not altogether satisfactory in many respects. One 
of the principal troubles with the oil burning pots is that 
when the oil has burned down half way or more in the pot 
the fires are not as hot as when the oil is at or near the 
top of the pot. This is because the upward currents of 
heated air prevent the oxygen getting down to the surface 
of the oil to make the flame. This slow combustion of the 
oil causes it to deposit larger amounts of soot around the 
top of the pot and throwing more of it off into the air. 
Several attempts have been made to perfect a heater that 
had a reservoir holding several gallons and fed through 
a pipe into the fire pan. But up to the present time 
no one has succeeded in perfecting such a reservoir 
heater Avliich will satisfactorily burn gas or fuel oil in 
cold weather. These oils are thick and gummy, and 
even become almost solid in cold weather, so that 
when the oil must flow through a pipe, as is the case with 
all of the heaters of this class at the present time, the oil 
thickens so that it will not flow. 

Aside from this trouble, the heavy oils which are used 
leave a thick deposit of residue or asphalt in the bottoms 
of the heaters, so that after burning for three or four 
nights this sediment must be scraped out. To do this it 



Danger Points 61 

is often necessary to heat the pots, and even at best it is 
a slow and nasty job. 

The style of oil burning pot that is most needed is on(i 
that is inexpensive, in which the burning oil can be kept 
at the same distance from the top of the container all of 
the time, and which will make the maximum amount of 
heat with a given quantity, and also one that will require 
the minimum amount of labor in filling, cleaning and 
storing. 

In heating an orchard it is important that the operator 
know what to do and how to do it, so that for persons 
who have never operated orchard heaters it is advisable 
by all means that several of the heaters be set out in the 
orchard, or an open place some time in advance of the 
time they are liable to be needed, and filled up with the 
fuel to be used and then lighted. Watch the way the fuel 
burns, and time the pots to see how long they will con- 
tinue to throw off the greatest amount of heat they are 
capable of producing. It will take but little time and be 
very little expense to make such a test, while it will more 
than likely serve a good turn to the orchardist when the 
danger lime comes in the spring. 

Danger Points 

It is commonly believed that the danger point for fruit 
buds is 32 degrees F., or the point at which frost forms 
and water freezes. This, however, is not correct, as the 
danger point to different kinds of fruits is variable, both 
with the kind of fruit and stage of development of the 
flowers. It will also vary with the conditions of the soil 
as to whether it is wet or dry or warm or cold. The 
JNIissouri Agricultural Experiment Station has found that 
dormant peach buds can stand a temperature of 8 or 9 
degrees below zero with no injury. When the buds are 
appreciably swollen, zero weather is the danger point. 
When the buds are showing pink they can stand 15 de- 
grees above zero. When the buds are almost open, 25 
degrees is the danger point. When they are newly opened 



62 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

about 26 degrees would be the point of danger. When the 
pclals are beginning to fall, 28 degrees above zero is cold 
enough to cause uneasiness. When the petals are off they 
can stand 30 degrees above zero. W^ien the "shucks" 
(calyx tubes) are beginning to fall off, 32 degrees above 
zero is the danger point. 

The United States Department of Agriculture makes 
the statement that the danger point for apples when they 
are showing pink is 20 degrees above zero; in full bloom, 
26 degrees above; pears showing pink, 20 above zero; in 
lull bloom, 27 above zero; peaches showing pink, 23 above 
zero; in full bloom, 28 above zero. 

Professor P. J. O'Gara stated that in southern Oregon 
the temperature at which apricot is injured when in the 
bud is 28 degrees above zero and at 30 degrees when in 
blossom; cherries are injured at 29 degrees just before 
the blooms open, and plums injured at 30 degrees above 
zero when the flowers begin to show white. 

These figures are not absolute, and will vary slightly 
from year to year and with the conditions of the bud, but 
they will serve to indicate that the buds will not be in- 
jured when the temperature falls below the freezing point 
for a couple of degrees. Bearing this in mind it will be 
apparent to the orchardist that it will not be necessary to 
start up the heaters until the temperature has reached the 
freezing point, and if the prospects are for only a few 
degrees of frost it will not be necessary to light up all of 
the fires in the orchard, but to hold some of them in re- 
serve. 

In heating the orchard it is not necessary to run the 
temperature more than to the freezing point, or at most 
a couple of degrees above, as there is nothing gained. In 
fact it may be even objectionable through causing the 
buds to grow a little and become even more tender than 
they would be if the temperature is held close to the frost 
line. To be certain as to the departure of the temperature 
above or below the freezing point it is necessary that the 
prchard be provided with several thermometers located at 



Danger Points 63 

convenient places where lliey can be looked at frequently 
by the overseer of the operations. 

It needs to be borne in mind when the work of orchard 
heating is begun that one has something else to do after 
the fires are started tlian to stand around and see the tem- 
perature in the heated zone rise to the point of comfort, 
while outside the frost will be forming over all. In fact, 
when orchard heaters are started to going it will keep all 
hands on the bounce looking after the fires, keeping them 
shut down or opened up so as to burn all the more vigor- 
ously. When a sudden drop in temperature does occur, 
and the heaters have been burning for several hours, it 
may necessitate filling the heaters while they burn. This 
is not an easy task, and especially when the coal burners 
are used, as it will mean that the pots must be cleaned 
out and sometimes that the fires must be rekindled. Then, 
after working ali night with the heaters, it will be neces- 
sary on the day following to get them all cleaned up, 
kindled and refilled so as to be ready in case they are 
needed the next night. This day and night work is ex- 
hausting, and it is important that the orchardist prepare 
before hand and get sufficient help to do the w^ork, and 
have the help well drilled in their work, so that the job 
can proceed with the least amount of trouble. Just a little 
systematizing of the procedure helps wonderfully in mak- 
ing a success of the work. 



64 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



CHAPTER III 



Thinning and Harvesting 

Thinning 

The practice of thinning fruit on the trees is not as 
extensively practiced by fruit growers as it will be in a 
few years in the future. The competition in fruit growing 
is becoming more keen each year, and the markets have 
less poor fruit each year, and the time is not far distant 
when the commercial orchardist cannot afford to grow 
fruit which will not measure up to the present standard of 
fancy. Thinning is done for the purpose of removing a 
portion of the fruit on the trees so as to allow that which 
remains to reach a larger size. It is profitable only on 
trees that are carrying a heavy load. To a certain extent 
the thinning can be done by pruning away some of the 
fruit producing wood, but in other cases it will take hand 
thinning to properly distribute the fruit. 

It has been frequently argued that it costs too much to 
thin, but as a matter of fact, it will cost no more to pick 
the fruit when it is small than it will when it reaches 
maturity. In many instances it will not cost as much. 
It is money well invested at any rate, as the reducing of 
a heavy crop works to the advantage of enlarging each in- 
dividual fruit left on the tree, and allows the tree to form 
fruit buds for the next year. In regions where the trees 
tend to an alternation in years of fruit production, the 
thinning of the crops will regulate the alternating habit. 
In the Western states where trees regularly overbear, 
thinning will allow the trees to make more wood growth 



Thinning OH 

and to enlarge tlie size of the crop that remains on the 
trees. 

It is impossible to lay down any formal set of rules 
for thinning as more depends on the size of the crop than 
any other factor. In years when there is a very light crop 
on the trees thinning may not be necessary, but in years 
when the crop is heavy it is always advisable. 




Peaches in the Right Stage for Thinning". 

Apples will usually produce their fruit in clusters of 
from three to half a dozen fruits in a bunch. All but the 
best apple in a bunch should be removed. On the tips of 

(3) 



06 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



the longest whips fruit is often formed, but will not de- 
velop into fancy fruit, so they had best be removed, allow- 
ing only the fruit on the spurs to remain, thinning out to 
only one on a spur. 

Pears have about the same habit of fruiting as do the 
apples, and need to be thinned in the same way. With 
young trees and with trees that are not carrying a very 
heavy load of fruit, thinning is not always a necessity, as 




Apples at the Right Stage for Thinning. 



if thinned on such trees the fruit may become larger than 
is most desired for market fruit. Very large pears are 
not wanted by the average market, as when they have to 
sell at a price above 5 cents each the demands are not 
sufficient to warrant most dealers handling them. 

Peaches, plums and cherries are thinned to a large 



Harvesting 67 

extent by the operation of pruning. Peaches especially 
set a far larger number of fruit buds than the tree can 
possibly bring to maturity, and thinning by removal of 
some of the fruit producing wood saves a large amount 
of labor later on. All of the fruit of the peach is produced 
on wood of the last year's growth, and the middle portions 
of such branches will have one or two buds at each node. 
The thinning should be done before the peaches 'get any 
larger than a pigeon egg, and need to be thinned out so 
that the fruit on any one branch is separated by at least 
six inches from any other fruit on the same limb. 

In thinning stone fruits the work can be done by pull- 
ing the fruits off, but with apples and pears it is safest 
to clip the fruit with sharp pointed shears, as if pulled 
there is too much liability of breaking off the entire spur. 

Harvesting 

The harvesting of a fruit crop is only one of the sev- 
eral important operations connected with fruit growing, 
and yet it is an operation which has a great deal of in- 
fluence over the final market value of the fruit, and takes 
a rank only second to spraying. If fruit has been care- 
fully sprayed, three-fourths of the loss that occurs by the 
lime the fruit reaches the consumer will be due to care- 
lessness in picking. 

To know when to pick a fruit is a fine art. To know 
how to pick a fruit can be learned by practice, but not 
every one can or will learn how to do the operation with 
all of the care that is necessary in handling a high class 
crop. The commercial fruit markets of today demand 
fruit that is in excellent condition, and will pay prices 
that Avarrant all of the care that the grower can give the 
fruit during the harvest. 

All kinds of fruit must be picked by hand, rather than 
b}^ raking off the tree, or shaking onto the grc^und to be 
picked up later on. Fruit that is picked from the tree 
must be laid carefully into a basket, bucket or bag and car- 
ried to the packers with the least possible shaking about. 



68 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

Most of the fancy fruit that is produced is held in cold 
storage during the early part of the season, and its market 
price will be determined largely by its superiority as a 
cold storage product. This means that the fruit must be 
picked in the proper condition. Fruit which is fully ripe, 
but not overripe, well colored and placed in storage im- 
mediately after harvesting keeps best. 

Picking Apples 

High quality apples must be picked by hand. Just 
\\ hen to pick will depend on a variety of circumstances. 
It depends on the variety of apple, the market to which 
it is to go, the style of packing and the general excellence 
of the crop. Red apples are usually ready to pick by the 
time they have reached their full color; yellow apples can- 
not alwa3's be determined when ready for picking by the 
color of the skin. A better guide is b}^ the size of the 
apple and by the color of the seeds. When the seeds have 
become a good brown color the apple has reached its ma- 
turity and is ready for picking. Some varieties of apples 
like Ben Davis and Northern Spy will hang on the trees 
for a long time after becoming ripe enough to pick, while 
varieties like Wagener and Wealthy or other early matur- 
ing kinds, will generally begin dropping by the time they 
have reached maturity. 

The time to pick apples is determined to some extent 
by the distance to market. When apples are to be used 
in the local market, or to be shipped only short distances, 
they can be allowed to hang on the trees longer, and will 
take on a higher color. If the fruit is to be shipped great 
distances it must be picked as soon as possible after 
having reached its maturity, although in some instances 
the fruit may have to be gathered while it is still a little 
on the green side of maturity. 

For high quality fruit it is the practice of many orchard- 
ists, esi)ccially in the Western fruit s'ections, to make sev- 
eral pickings, going over the trees at least three different 
times, picking only the largest fruits each time. This will 



Picking Apples 69 

often result in increasing the grade of the fruit, as apples 
will continue to increase in size, and deepen in color, 
during the last few days they remain on the tree. Some 
varieties of red apples will not take on the highest color 
they can attain until after the leaves have begun to thin 
out a little in the fall and allow the sunlight to enter the 
tree. 

The coloring of an apple is a character that has a great 
influence over the final price the fruit will bring in the 
market. Ked apples that have reached maturity, and are 
perfect in every respect except that they are poorly col- 
ored, will not bring the same price as apples that are per- 
fectly colored. In some of the Western fruit districts 
that make a specialty of fancy fruit, it is demanded by the 
associations that the growers put into their first grade 
or extra fancy fruit, only apples that are at least 70 per 
cent red. By making several pickings the color of much 
of the fruit can be increased materially, and the increased 
price for high colored fruit offsets the increased cost of 
making additional pickings. 

In picking fruit every care should be exercised that the 
skin of the fruit is not injured by punctures from the fruit 
spurs, and from the finger nails of the pickers. It should 
not be knocked against any object that would cause a 
bruise. A bruise so slight as to not be noticeable will 
develop into a discoloration in man}^ varieties, especially 
yellow apples, and possibly cause the tissue to break down 
and rot. The pickers should be warned and watched 
against pulling out the stems of the apples. Every fruit 
should have the stein left in the apple, and this can always 
be had if the fruit is not pulled off the twig. Each apple 
should be grasped firmly and lifted up at a sharp angle 
to the twig and given a quick twist. Unless very green, 
the stem will break easily from the spur. When a stem 
is pulled out of the fruil it always leaves a wound into 
Avliich mould spores can enter and start the apple to rot- 
ling. 

Mechanical pickers arc of little value in harvesting a 
crop of fancy apples. They may be of some service in the 



70 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

home orchard, or where cider apples are being harvested, 
but have no place in the orchard where fancy fruit is being 
grown. The principal objection to mechanical pickers is 
that they invariably pull the stems out of the apples and 
subject the fruit to more or less bruising and puncture the 
skin. 

Buckets and Ladders 

Tin cr galvanized iron buckets are the best things to 
use in picking apples, and each bucket should be provided 
with a large, strong wire hook attached to the bail, in 
order that the bucket can be hung on a limb or on the 
ladder while being filled. It is better to have the bucket 
on the ladder or on a limb, rather than to be attached to 
the picker, as the fruit is subjected to less damage from 
bruising. Baskets holding a half bushel or less, and which 
are well padded inside, are very satisfactory for picking 
apples into, but are more unwieldy than the bucket. Some 
persons use buckets that have a canvas bottom which can 
be loosened so that the apples roll into the lug box or on 
the packing table. They answer very well in the hands of 
careful pickers, but the fruit is liable to be bruised by 
being set down on hard objects. Picking bags and baskets 
also serve their purpose very well in the hands of careful 
pickers, but as it makes it necessary for the pickers to 
carry the fruit about with them at every move, there is 
great danger of the fruit being bruised. 

Ladders are a necessity, and the best ones, except for 
very high trees, are step ladders with three legs. Such a 
ladder will set more solidly than a ladder with four legs. 
The best for high trees are light ladders with two rails so 
shaped that the rails meet at the top and are continued up- 
ward for a couple or three feet. Ladders of this sort slip 
into the branches easily and are strong and substantial. 
Tt is an advantage in picking apples to have the picking 
crew graded according to height. Some of the pickers 
should work on the ground, picking no fruit they cannot 
reach easily from the ground. Another set of pickers 
sliLuld work from six-foot ladders, and the remainder work 



Buckets and Ladders 



71 



from high ladders. This will facilitate the picking as the 
pickers will quickly adapt themselves to the height at 
which they must work and learn how to handle themselves 
and their bucket. 

After the fruit is picked it must be kept out of the sun. 
The best method is to have the pickers empty their buck- 




Step Ladders and Picking Bags used in Jdarvesting Ap- 
ples in Western Colorado. 



ets into lug boxes, filling the boxes no more than level 
full, and haul the boxes to the packers immediately. In 
emptying the buckets or bags the pickers should not pour 
or drop the apples into the boxes, but lift each apple care- 
fully and lay it over by hand. A drop of only a few inches 
will in many cases, bruise the fruit. Apples must be 



72 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

liandled as carefully as eggs. The practice of transferring! 
the apples from the picking bucket to a heap on the 
ground to await the packers in the orchard is not recom- 
mended for fancy apples. They will be more or less 
bruised; they will heat and unless carefully covered, 
they will be scalded by the sunlight. Some growers trans- 
fer the apples from the pickers directly to the wagon, 
where they are loaded in bulk and hauled to the packers 
and poured out on the packing tables. This always bruises 
the fruit to a greater or less extent, and is not recom- 
mended. The best practice is to transfer the fruit from 
the pickers' buckets into lug boxes of three-eighth inch 
sides and bottoms and three-fourths inch ends with a 
cleat across the top at each end to keep the bOxes apart 
when piled on top of each other. It is an advantage in 
handling the boxes to have hand holds sawed in the ends 
by which they can be carried. 

Apples should be hauled from the orchard to the pack- 
ing house on low wheeled wagons equipped with good 
bolster springs. A low wheeled wagon will pass under 
the limbs of the trees more easily than the high wheels, 
and will cause less damage to the low limbs and to the 
fruit that hangs low on the trees. Where lug boxes are 
used, make a platform for the wagon, around the edge of 
M'hich' there is a one-inch strip to keep the boxes from 
sliding off. The boxes can be piled two or three high, 
and such a wagon is far more easily lo,aded and unloaded 
than an ordinary wagon box. 

Pickers should be paid by the day rather than by the 
quantity. This will insure less injury to the fruit, as when 
paid by the quantity the pickers will have no interest than 
to get as many apples off in a day as possible. By receiv- 
ing a certain sum for each day's work, they will exercise 
more care lo pick each apple so as to retain the stem and 
to handle the fruit without bruising. Apples picked while 
wet from rain or heavy dew will rot quickly. It is better 
always to wait until the trees have dried off before com- 
mencing to pick after a rain. 



Picking Peaches 
Picking Peaches 



73 



Peaches for eating out of the hand are best when 
picked just before the fruit has become so ripe that it will 
fall off the tree. However, for the commercial peach, 
where the fruit will possibly be shipped a thousand miles 
or more, and where it may have to lay in the package for 
ten days or so before finally reaching the consumer, it is 



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acii Pickers U.-sing Bushel Baskets 



impossible to let them reach their full maturity before pick- 
ing. It is always best to leave them on the tree just as long 
as possible and still get them to the consumer without their 
being injured or overripe. This means that for nearby 
markets they can be allowed to become riper than where 
they are sent to far distant markets. However, the fruit 



74 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

should not be either too ripe or too green. It is easy to 
err on either side. 

Peaches vary considerably with the different varieties 
as to the stage of maturity they must reach before picking. 
Firm varieties like Elberta can be allowed to reach a riper 
condition before picking than with the soft fleshed kinds 
like Carman. In cool dry weather the fruit can become 
riper than when it is hot and muggy. In wet weather 
mere is always much loss from the fruit rotting. 

A half-bushel wooden basket is the best thing to use 
for picking peaches. The fruit should be picked from the 
trees carefully, and just at the time when it has reached 
its full size and developed a good blush on the sunny side. 
When ready to pick the fruit must be solid, with no incli- 
cation of a soft spot, and must be handled carefully so as 
to not bruise it by dropping it into the basket or in hauling 
it to the packing shed. If a soft spot can be felt when the 
fruit is held in the hand and squeezed gently, it is too ripe 
to ship far. 

It pays to go over the trees several times, as the fruit 
will not all reach the same stage of ripeness at the same 
time and the smaller fruits that may be left for several 
days on the trees will increase greatly in size and pack into 
a much larger grade than if the tree is stripped at one" 
picking. 

Picking Pears 

It is necessary in putting out a first-class grade of 
pears to go over the trees not less than three times, taking 
at each picking only those pears which are ready to pick. 
To know when to pick a pear can be learned only by ex- 
perience. When left on the trees until they have begun to 
color pears will become granular in the center, and in 
storage they will break down at the core and become soft 
and mushy. A pear for market needs to be picked when 
it has reached its full size but is still' green in color. In 
some varieties, such as Bartlett and Comice, the usual 
method of knowing when a pear is ready to pick is when 
the pear will snap off the stem when the fruit is lifted and 



Picking Pears 75 

bent upwards at a sharp angle to the fruit spur. When 
such is the case the fruit needs to be picked and placed in 
storage to ripen. The yellow coloring of pears is devel- 
oped in storage, although the crimson blush which appears 
on some kinds must be formed while still hanging on the 
tree. Not many varieties of pears will take on a red cheek, 
although it is common to some kinds. 

Pears need to be handled with as much care as the 
apple, and extra care must be taken that the stems are not 
broken off or pulled out. On account of their extending 
out of the fruit, and being quite rigid, they are easily 
broken, and the way opened for the entrance of germs that 
will cause the fruit to rot. 



76 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



CHAPTER IV 



Packing 

Packing in its broadest application consists of the oper- 
ation of placing" articles, goods, products or merchandise 
into suitable parcels, baskets, boxes, cans, barrels or other 
l)ackages for safe transportation. In horticultural work 
it applies especially to the preparation of fruits and vege- 
tables for shipment. 

The approved method of packing fruits and vegetables 
necessarily differs widely with the nature of the article 
to be packed, and for the same product custom has estab- 
lished different practices in different parts of the country. 
Formerly it was the habit in many markets to return the 
empty packages to the shipper so that they could be used 
over and over again. With the vast increase in distant 
shipments, due to improved transportation facilities, this 
became impossible, and now cheap gift packages intended 
to be used but once, are coming into favor, and in some 
regions are used exclusively. This is b}'^ far the best prac- 
tice, as it is a sanitary method, and assures a clean, neat 
package for the product. 

While the shape, size and form of the package varies 
widely for the same kind of product in different parts of 
the country, some form of crate, barrel, box or basket 
constitutes the commonest package for the ordinary fruits 
or vegetables. These are modified to suit the particular 
purpose. 

Modern Packages 

Modern packages are characterized by lightness, neat- 
ness, cheapness and uniformit3\ and are of such shape as 



Modern Packages 77 

will best accommodate the kind of product for which they 
are designed. Most packages are intended to contain some 
certain standard quantity, as pint, quart, bushel or multiple 
thereof, yet every market is more or less full of packages 
which contain "short" measure. Legal actions and regu- 
lations have been somewhat ineffectual in enforcing the 
adoption of packages containing quantities of certain vol- 
ume, yet they should be observed by all growers, especi- 
ally when the package is expected to contain a specific 
volume of standard measurement. 

The sale of any product largely depends on the ap- 
pearance of the packages in which they are contained, and 
packages which attract the eye of the buyer are most 
easily sold. It is always advisable to have a sufficient . 
supply of the desired packages on hand at the beginning 
of the shipping season, as it is often difficult to get the 
right kinds of packages at the height of the season for 
that particular kind of product. Packages which have 
been once used for the shipment of fruit or vegetables 
should not be used for the purpose a second time. The 
general appearance of such packages are not only against 
them, but it frequently happens that the wood is filled 
with the spores of organisms which cause decomposition 
of the product from the produce which was formerly 
packed in them. These will then hasten the decomposi- 
tion of the fresh produce which may be packed therein. 

Any unused packages at the end of the season should 
be carefully gathered together and stored where they will 
be kept perfectly dry and clean and where their general 
attractiveness will be retained until they are to be put into 
use at a subsequent season. 

Grading of the product before packing is very essential, 
and consists in selecting specimens of uniform size and 
condition for each grade used. There is a variety of names 
applied to the grades of any sort of produce, depending 
largely on the locality and kind. Each package should 
contain only one grade and be honestly packed all the 
way through. 

As a general rule packages for soft and perishable 



78 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

produce is packed in small parcels. Red raspberries, for 
example, are packed in small cups or boxes holding ap- 
proximately a pint. On. the other hand, winter potatoes, 
a product that does not require such careful handling, are 
packed in bags containing about 150 pounds. In the South- 
ern states where the trucking industry has reached its 
highest development, there is much care given to packing 
vegetables, so as to have them, reach the markets in the 
finest possible condition as there is in the Western or- 
charding sections to have the highly perishable fruits, such 
as peaches, cherries and apples, to reach the markets in the 
best condition. 

Potatoes 

While the potato is one product which can be handled 
with the minimum of care, yet for the early potato it is 
necessary to observe certain precautions against bruising 
and breaking the tender and immature skin, and in getting 
them properly packed so as to reach their distant market 
with the least amount of loss from bruising. Early po- 
tatoes need to be handled carefully from the time they 
are taken from the soil until in the hands of the consumer. 
They are sometimes dug with a machine made for digging 
potatoes, and sometimes with an ordinary "potato hook.'* 
They should be gathered from the field as soon as possible 
after digging to prevent their wilting and becoming sun- 
burned or turned green through the development of chlo- 
rophyll. Grading and packing may be done in the field 
or they may be taken to the storage house and there pre- 
pared for market. The crop requires as careful and uni- 
form grading as any other farm product. The tubers 
should be sorted according to size into first and second 
grades. All scabby, second growth and injured specimens 
should be rejected, and the different varieties kept separate. 

Early potatoes are generally packed in ventilated bar- 
rels with a burlap cover, although in some sections the 
barrels are double headed in the same manner as apples. 
The potatoes are not "faced," but poured in carefully from 
a small basket that can be lowered into the barrel. During 



Cabbage 79 

the process of packing the barrel should be shaken or 
"racked" several times so as to cause the potatoes to settle 
and arrange themselves into the spaces between the tubers, 
and make the pack firm and snug so that it will be well 
filled at the time it reaches the market. 

Sweet potatoes are packed in the same manner, and 
fully as much care is necessary in the grading of them as 
very small string-like potatoes are not desirable and tubers 
which are considerably over size add nothing to the ap- 
pearance of the package. Potatoes of medium size are the 
most satisfactory for the Northern markets and usually 
bring the best price. 

Some of the Southern sweet potato growers are of the 
opinion that the use of double headed barrels add materi- 
ally to the marketing of the tubers in the North, as a 
double headed barrel insures the potatoes reaching the 
market in a better condition than is usually the case with 
the burlapped barrel. 

Cabbage 

In the Southern states where cabbage is grown for the 
Northern markets the usual package for marketing is a 
slat-crate holding about 100 pounds. The heads are graded 
according to size and packed as carefully as any other 
perishable product. The slat crate or ventilated barrel is 
preferred to the ordinary barrel because of the better ven- 
tilation that is obtained. Cabbage wilts considerably after 
being cut, and unless there is abundant ventilation for this 
moisture, the air in the package becomes saturated and 
moisture frequently condenses on the sides of the barrel. 
In a tight package rot will quickly develop, and the prod- 
uct be spoiled. 

Late cabbage is most often packed in a square crate 
holding about a barrel, and in either sort of package it is 
important to pack heads of uniform size in each package, 
and to fill the package very full and solid, as cabbage wilts 
and shrinks considerably during transportation so that it 
is important to guard against having it reach the buyer in 
a slack condition. 



80 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

Lettuce 

Tlie packages for head and leaf lettuce are somewhat 
different. In the Southern states where head lettuce is 
grown in the open field for the Northern markets, the 
lettuce is generally marketed in half-barrel baskets, while 
in the North where leaf lettuce is grown in greenhouses, 
the products are packed in half-bushel veneer market bas- 
kets, and in one-third and one-bushel boxes. 

All of the heads of lettuce will not reach the same stage 
of development at the same time so that the field, frame 
or house must be gone over several times, selecting each 
time only those plants which have reached the proper de- 
velopment. The plants are sorted and graded as they are 
packed. In the Southern lettuce fields the plants are cut 
and trimmed in the field and packed there or taken to the 
packing house and packed. In the bottom layer of the 
basket the heads are placed stem end down and the re- 
mainder of the basket filled with stem end up. placing the 
heads in the basket as neatly as possible, and in uniform 
layers. 

With leaf lettuce the packing is done either flat or 
stem end down, packing the basket or box as tight and 
firm as possible without crushing the leaves. The leaves 
will wilt and shrink somewhat after being cut, and for 
that reason the packages need to be well filled, but not so 
tightly as to heat, otherwise they will become slack before 
reaching the market, and not bring as good a price as 
might otherwise be had. 

Beans and Peas 

Beans and peas from the Southern trucking districts 
are marketed in the same sort of half-barrel basket as is 
used for lettuce. The packing is mostly done in the field, 
each picker putting the produce directly into the package 
without any additional sorting at the packing house. In 
some sections these packages are covered with burlap and 
in others a wooden lid is placed on each basket, thus mak- 



Tomatoes 81 

ing it possible to put the product on the Northern market 
in somewhat better shape than when burlap covers are 
used. 

Cucumbers 

This crop is grown in the open in the Southern states 
and in greenhouses in the north, for the winter and early- 
spring trade. In the Southern states the customary pack- 
age is a one-third barrel veneer basket. The cucumbers 
are cut from the vines and carried to the packing house 
where they are sorted over and graded, so that each basket 
contains specimens of uniform shape and size. The most 
desirable market size during the early spring is for fruits 
six to eight inches long. These are placed in the baskets 
so as to lay flat, and packed in as firmly as possible. The 
baskets are covered with a wooden lid made for the pur- 
pose. 

Cucumbers grown under glass are generally packed in 
boxes which are about eight inches deep and twenty-four 
inches square, and are either stood on end in the box or 
laid flat, according to the size and grade that is being 
packed. 

Tomatoes 

When tomatoes are grown as a truck crop in the South 
to be shipped to some distant market it is important to 
pick the fruit as soon as the first coloring appears. The 
fruit needs to be picked darefuUy, without the stem, and 
taken to the packing shed in small baskets or boxes, 
handled at all times in such manner as to prevent any 
possible bruises or injury to the skin. 

In packing, only sound, perfect fruits should be used 
and each package should contain as nearly as possible 
fruits of the same shape, size and color. For fancy mar- 
kets, or for long distance shipments, it is advisable to wrap 
each fruit in a sheet of soft, white paper, upon which the 
name of the grower should be neatly printed. 

The usual package in the South is the six-basket carrier 
similar to the one that is used in some sections for packing 



82 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

peaches. In packing such a package, the fruit should be 
arranged neatly in rows in each little basket. 

Where the fruits are placed on local or nearby mar- 
kets they are packed in the Michigan or Delaware type 
of baskets. 

Beets 

For distant shipment beets are pulled when about two 
and a half inches in diameter, and are tied in bunches of 
from about four to six, with the tops cut back about one- 
half. There is no standard sort of package for this root 
crop, the kind used depending largely on the market to 
which the crop is sent. Some markets prefer the venti- 
lated barrels, while others want a bushel slat-crate and 
still others want either the half-bushel or half-barrel 
veneer hamper. No matter what sort of package is used, 
the beets should be well graded and neatly packed. 

Celery 

This crop is quite uniformly marketed in crates by the 
growers in all of the important celery producing regions. 
The plants are dug from the field and the roots cut off and 
then tied into bundles of from four to a dozen plants in a 
bundle and packed root end down in open crates. In some 
of the Northern markets, where celery is marketed locally, 
the plants do not have the roots cut off, but are packed 
in crates which have a water tight bottom in which a 
little water is placed. In such crates the plants will keep 
fresh, much longer than where the roots are cut off; how- 
ever, such packages are expensive and do not permit of as 
rapid handling as do the Standard crates. 

Radishes 

Radishes intended for long distance shipments are 
pulled and tied into bundles of about a dozen roots each 
and packed in half-barrels or hampers. It is considered 
advisable in warm weather to pack some two or three 



strawberries SI^. 

layers of crushed ice in each package of radishes, espe- 
cially when shipping- over long distances. This will assist 
' in preventing the decay of the tops and roots, and keep 
the plants crisp and fresh. 

Small Fruits 

The packages used for berries of all kinds are pint or 
(|iiart "cups" or boxes made of cardboard or thin veneer 
and fastened together with wire staples or tacks. The 
shape of the boxes varies somewhat with the market to 
which the fruit goes, although in a general way square 
boxes, which are a little larger at the top than bottom are 
preferred on the Eastern markets, while in the Middle 
Western states the "Hallock'' or "Leslie" boxes are used. 
Whatever shape box is used, they are packed in crates 
holding from 16 to 24 or 32, 48 or 60 boxes. 

As a rule the softer the berry the smaller the box should 
be, or at least the more shallow it should be in order to 
prevent the berries from being crushed by their own 
weight. For this reason the package most popular for the 
fruits of the brambles, such as red raspberries, black rasp- 
berries, blackberries and dewberries, are cups which are 
about five inches square and two inches deep. These cups 
hold approximately a pint, and in them the berries are not 
piled so deep that the bottom ones are crushed by the 
weight of those above. Packages of this size are so satis- 
factory for small fruits that blackberries have been har- 
vested in the Puget Sound country of Washington and 
shipped to Chicago, where they arrived practically in as 
good condition as the day they were picked from the 
bushes. 

Strawberries 

The system of packing strawberries is undergoing a 
gradual transformation, taking the country as a whole. 
This is on account of the great extension of the commer- 
cial strawberry growing country, and the increasing de- 
mands for fancy fruits in neat and attractive packages. 



S4 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



Cups or boxes holding not over a quart are the accepted 
standard as packages for strawberries. In most sections 
of the country these boxes are arranged in little trays 
holding from four to a dozen boxes, which the packers 
take to the field. The berries are picked directly into the 
boxes, without any additional sorting or grading. While 
this practice is common and used in all parts of the straw- 
berry growing districts, it is falling into disfavor for the 




A carefully packed crate of strawberries. This style of 
packing adds materially to the attractiveness and helps in 
bringing a better price. 



reason that the pickers are not always as careful as they 
should be about grading the fruit as it is picked. Children 
do most of the work of picking strawberries, and they be- 
come careless about grading unless they are more care- 
fully watched than most growers are able to do. 



strawberries 85 

Because of this there is an increasing tendency among 
growers who are packing fancy and extra fancy fruit to 
have the picking done in the usual way, and then repack 
the fruit at the packing shed. In this repacking the fruit 
is poured out onto a tray having a bottom made of mos- 
quito bar or soft cotton cloth. All of the bruised, over- 
ripe or dirty berries are thrown out. The berries suitable 
for packing are arranged in two grades, and are placed in 
the boxes in rows and layers, much after the fashion of 
boxed apples. Berries which are of irregular shape, such 
as Bubach or Aroma, do not pack into boxes as smoothly 
and evenly as do such varieties as Senator Dunlap, Klon- 
dike or Clark's Seedling. But whatever the size or shape 
of the berry, the boxes should be graded honestly with 
the fruit in the top layer turned with the same side up, 
thus "facing" the box. Fruit which runs under three- 
quarters of an inch in diameter should not be marketed as 
first-class berries, as they are too small, and should be 
sent to the canning factory. 

In those parts of tlie country where fruit growers' as- 
sociations have control of the harvesting and packing the 
better methods are in use, and the growers receive more 
careful instruction about picking and packing their fruit. 
The association at Ashland, Oregon, issued the following 
instructions in 1910 for its berry growers: "Strawberries 
are graded 'A' and 'B.' The 'A' grade berries must be nice 
in appearance, firm and clean; smallest berry for 'A' grade 
should be of such size that four berries will form one row 
along the side of the cup; face the 'A' grade with medium 
size berries; do not put the extra large berries on top. 
The 'B' grade, firm and clean, no culls, and need not be 
faced. Stems on all strawberries should be about half an 
inch long. Pick in the mornings only, and keep dry and 
cool; do not let crates or picking crates set in sun. De- 
liver to warehouse before 10:30 a. m. Use wagon with 
springs and cover fruit. Make rule for pickers that ber- 
ries must not be carried in hand but must be transferred 
to cup at once after picking. Berries should be handled 
as little as possible. Fill cups about half an inch above 
the rim; fill corners; pack firmly, but do not press. In 



86 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

picking blackberries, raspberries and logans, remove all 
stems and pick as soon as berries come off readily. Be 
careful to not put overripe or crushed fruit in cups, as it 
will cause the entire lot to mould. Use no small or dried 
berries. Especial care is required to fill the corners; if 
not done, shipping causes berries to sink in cup. Currants 
and gooseberries are shipped in crates and cups, same as 
strawberries. Get instructions from manager as to time 
and condition of picking. Mark grower's name in upper 
left hand corner of crate. Attention to details gives sat- 
isfaction to customers and keeps up the price." 

"Shed packing," as it is called, has found favor with 
the strawberry growers at Pierce City, Mo., where the 
association has made a fine reputation for its pack and 
has been able to realize from 15 to 35 cents per crate above 
the average market price. To accomplish this the berries 
are culled at the packing shed. There the force of help 
is divided into cullers, graders and packers, over whom is 
the shed inspector. About two-thirds of the force cull 
and grade; the other one-third being divided up into pack- 
ers and finishers. To facilitate the work of packing, trays 
or pans have been contrived in the shape of a flat, shallow 
tin scoop tapering from 8 to 10 inches in width at the 
handle to about 4>4 inches at the other end, and from about 
12 to 14 inches long. These trays expose the surface of all 
the berries in such a way that the faulty ones may be 
quickly culled out. The good fruit remaining is then 
emptied into the box from which it originally came, and 
additional berries are added to make it nicely rounded. 
Every box and crate prepared for shipment must be exam- 
ined by the inspector and receive his stamp of approval 
before being shipped. 

Grapes 

There are a great many different kinds of grapes grown 
in this country, yet there are but two styles or type of 
packages in general use. One of these is the "Climax" 
basket that is used for the Concord class of grapes, and 
fmds its most extensive use in the central and eastern 



Peaches 87 

portions of the country, while on the Pacific coast, where 
the Vinifera type, such as Cornichon, Tokay, etc., are 
most extensively grown, the tour-basket crates are 
mostly used. There are various sizes of Climax baskets, 
holding 3, 5, 8 and 10 pounds of grapes, and are sold intact 
to the consumer. With the grapes from the Pacific coast 
they are usually sold by the pound on the retail stands, 
the average consumer rarely buying so much as one basket, 
which may weigh as much as five pounds. The Malaga 
grapes, that reach the Eastern markets in midwinter, are 
packed in Jialf barrels with the spaces filled with cork 
dust. In such packages the grapes will carry better and 
keep for a longer time than when packed in baskets as 
other varieties. 

In some of the large grape growing districts of the 
East the grapes are cut from the vines in the field and 
laid into lug boxes that will hold about fifty pounds. These 
are taken to the packing house immediately, where they 
are allowed to stand for at least twenty-four hours to wilt. 
They may stand for several days if the weather is cool, and 
will pack into the baskets very much more firmly after 
wilting than when cut from the vines. 

Growers in some of the smaller sections do not repack 
their grapes in the packing house, but pick directly into 
the shipping baskets. When filled the baskets are set 
under the vines where they will be out of the sun. In 
picking, the grapes are carefully arranged in the baskets 
and well heaped up. After standing for a day or so they 
will have wilted sufficiently so that the lid can be placed 
on the basket. 

Peaches 

The packages for this fruit as it is packed in each of 
the mai^y states where it is grown commercially are as 
variable as for any other kind of fruit. The most impor- 
tant of these are the Climax basket used in Michigan, the 
half-bushel and bushel basket, and the Delaware or Jersey 
basket, the 4 and 6-baskct carrier and the flat box of the 
Pacific coast states. Of all of these the last named is the 



88 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

only one which requires any especial skill in packing. The 
6-basket carriers require that the peaches be graded into 
fruits of uniform size and placed in the little baskets in 
such manner as to make a good appearance. Some skill 
is required to do this in the best manner, but it is easily 
learned, and after a day or so any one who is careful can 
pack such baskets perfectly. 

As a general rule the peach growers in all parts of the 
country pack their peaches in especially arranged packing 
houses. These houses are arranged so that the wagons 
delivering the fruit from the pickers in the field can drive 
up to one end or side of the house and unload directly on 
the floor ot the house. The house is provided with long 
tables usually having a canvas bottom, and at convenient 
distances apart on each side of the table are brackets or 
racks of such size as to hold the baskets of the packers. 
The packers grade and pack at the same time. Culls are 
dropped through a chute in the table to baskets on the 
floor, and the packers put fruits of uniform size into each 
basket. 

The bushel baskets are usually packed in the field un- 
less the crop is very defective, necessitating the sorting 
out of rotten or overripe stock at the house. The Climax 
and Delaware baskets are sometimes packed in the field, 
although the growers who make the better packs work the 
fruit over in the packing house and sort into two or three 
grades. 

In the great peach growing sections of the far Western 
states the packing of fruit has been reduced to a fine art 
and it is in these sections that one finds the greatest uni- 
formity in the styles of packages and packing. About the 
only package that finds commercial use in the West is the 
light pine box having dimensions of about 11 >4 by 18 
inches and 4, 4^ and 5 inches deep inside. The ends are 
made of 3-4 inch or 11-16 material and sides of 1-4 inch 
wood. In these boxes the peaches are packed only two 
deep, so that the lower laj^er is not bruised by the weight 
of the fruit above, and the contents cool very quickl}^ when 
put in an iced refrigerator car or cold storage. 



Handling the Fruit 89 

The majority of the associations in the West make 
three grades, and while they are known hy different names 
in different parts of the West, they are practically uniform 
in size of fruit. These grades are known by the name of 
"extra," "90s" and "108s;" "extra fancy," "fancv," "choice," 
"F," "A," "B," etc. 

The "extras" or "extra fancy" is applied to peaches that 
will pack not more than 80 to the box; "90s" should run 
from 81 to 94 to a box, and the "108s" from 95 to 108. In 
the peach growing section of Oregon the "F" grade is. 
applied to peaches running not more than 66 to the box; 
"A" to 76 and "B" to 88. In this district a fourth grade 
funning to 100 per box has been packed, but has not been 
a profitable size, and peaches running less than 88 are used 
up locally or canned. 

Handling the Fruit 

The first essential in packing peaches for the commer- 
cial market and especially where they are to be shipped 
for some distance, is to have the fruit picked in the right 
way and at the right tmie. Peaches which are picked too 
green or too ripe will not prove satisfactory on the mar- 
ket. In picking pick with the hand and not the fingers. 
Reach over the peach so that the fruit rests in the palm of 
the hand and separate the fruit from the stem by a twist 
from the wrist and not by a pull. Peaches picked in this 
manner will not show the least mark, even on the ripest 
fruit, and the fruit should be laid in the basket and not 
dropped. The fruit must be handled as carefully as eggs. 

Grading of the peaches is done as the fruit is packed, 
as it is the general opinion among experienced packers 
that the fruit can be handled in that manner with the least 
amount of damage. Grading machines have been in use 
to some extent, but they have not proven altogether satis- 
factory as yet on account of the bruising which is caused. 
Yet there is every reason to believe that satisfactory ma- 
chines will be developed within the next few years that 
will handle peaches with but little more bruising than they 
receive at the hands of careful pickers. 



90 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



Upon being delivered from the field the peaches are 
carefully emptied out upon tables having well padded or 
canvas bottoms. At the sides of the tables are racks hold- 
ing two or three boxes slightly inclined, one box for each 
grade, and the fruit is packed from the lower end up. 
Peaches packed in these Western sections are each wrap- 




-~***^fiiiM-^-^' 



Interior of a peach-packing siied at Koslikonong, Mo., 
showing the packing table, bushel baskets in which the fruit 
is delivered from the field, and a six-basket crate. 



ped in paper. This operation is easily learned with a little 
experience, although it will go rather slowly at first. The 
papers used for wrapping are cut 7x7 or 8x8 and kept in 
suitable trays at the side of the boxes and within easy 
reach for the packers. 



Handling the Fruit 91 

The packers stand with one side to the table. A peach 
is picked up in one hand and a paper in the other, the paper 
being caught about the center between the thumb and 
first finger in such a manner that the paper lays flat on 
the palm of the hand. The peach is then quickly placed 
in the center of the paper, and the paper closed over the 
fruit by closing the fingers and finally finished by a deft 
little twist into the box so that the corners close over the 
fruit and serve as a pad between the box and fruit. After 
the first layer has been completed the second layer is put 
in in the same manner, and the box is ready for the nailing 
press. 

There arc many styles of arranging peaches in the 
boxes, depending largely on the size and shape of the 
fruit. It is of great assistance to the inexperienced pack- 
ers to have a "size board" or specimen peaches of the dif- 
ferent grades continually before them, so that by compar- 
ing these frequently the grades can be kept quite constant. 
The ''straight" pack in which the fruit is arranged in 
straight rows up and down and across the box is the sim- 
plest style of packing and one that has been extensively 
used, but is being displaced by the "diamond" or "diag- 
onal'' pack, since in the straight pack each fruit rests'' 
directly on top of others and is thus more easily bruised. 
In the diamond pack the fruits are placed so that each 
specimen is in the hollow between several others, and long 
experience has shown that this style of packing causes less 
damage than the straight pack. 

The diamond packs are arranged so that the peaches 
come' in double rows across the box containing 2-2, 3-2, 
3-3, 4-3, 4-4, 4-5, etc., corresponding to the "half tiers" in 
the boxed .apple package. In this style of packing, the 
"3-2" for example, three peaches are placed in the lower 
end of the box, one in each corner, and the third exactly 
in the middle. In the second row there are only two 
peaches which are placed in the spaces between those in ' 
the first row. In the third row three peaches are placed 
in the spaces left by the fruit in the second row, and come 
directly above the fruit in the first row. In the fourth 



92 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

row tliere will be two fruits again, and be directly above 
the ones in the second row. After the first layer is about 
half filled in the fruit needs to be "drawn down" snugly 
so as to give the box a little bulge at the side, but must 
be done without bruising the fruit. The layer is then 
completed. In placing the second layer in the box the 
first row at the lower end will contain two fruits placed 
over the spaces between the fruit in the lower layer. The 
second row contains three fruits, and so on alternately 3 
and 2 until the box is filled. 

Apples 

Apples for the commercial market are packed in fewer 
styles of packages than any other kind of fruit. Barrels 
holding approximately 100 quarts, and boxes holding a 
bushel are the packages most extensively used. Some 
trifling differences are made in the sizes of barrels by the 
laws of the different states, but they are approximately 
28y2 inches long, with heads 17^> inches in diameter, and 
64 inches in circumference at the bulge on the outside. 
There is a slight difference made in the exact dimensions 
of the bushel boxes, on account of the adaptability of 
certain sizes to some sizes and shapes of apples. 

It takes but little skill to. pack a barrel of apples. A 
little experience, combined with the careful sorting of the 
fruit will enable any good workman to pack a. barrel of 
apples, for the reason that the fruit is not arranged in the 
barrel in layers or rows, but the apples poured in and al- 
lowed to lay in whatever position they will. 

In putting up the most fancy package of apples in bar- 
rels it is best to line the barrel with white or manilla 
paper, with a piece of lace paper over the face and a thick 
pad between the fruit and the head to prevent the apples 
from being bruised. 

A barrel ready for packing is placed in front of the 
l)acker with the bottom end out and the head, or top end 
do\Aii. A few well sorted a]:)plcs arc then arranged with 
the stem ends down, so as to completely cover the head. 



Apples 



93 



A second row may be placed in a similar manner if the 
barrel is to be packed nicely, otherwise the barrel is filled 
with apples of the same size and grade as the face layer, 
by lowering into the barrel a basket that can be emptied 
with the least liability of damaging the fruit by bruising. 
The barrel is shaken frequently while it is being filled to 
cause the apples to settle, but must not be done so vigor- 
ously as to bruise the fruit. When the barrel is full a 
layer of apples is then placed on top, all with the stems 
up, and should stand up above the top of the barrel for a 
couple of inches. 




A Nicely Faced Barrel of Apples. 



The chime hoops are then loosened up a little and the 
top one removed. The barrel-press and head are then 
put in place and the head forced into position. While the 
pressure is being applied a few strokes with a hammer di- 
rects the head into place, when the chime hoops arc driven 
down and nailed: the lining hoops are then nailed fast and 
the press removed. The barrel is then turned over and 
the name of the variety and name of the grower are sten- 
ciled on the end that was downward, and which now 
becomes the "face." 



94 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



A barrel thus packed opens up with a nice show of 
evenly packed apples on the face and'^makes a good appear- 
ance. The necessity of tilling the apples above the chime 
and then forcing them down into the barrel must be done 
to get the fruit in tight enough to prevent it from shaking 
around and bruising. Apples packed firmly will bruise much 
less easily than those packed less firmly. In foi'cing the 
bottom of the barrel into place the lower layer of apples 
will often be somewhat bruised, and the juice may fly out 




Apples are usually barreled in the orchard, thereby doinj? 
away with the necessity of hauling the fruit to and from the 
packing house. 



of some of them, but this rarely causes any damage, as the 
juice is quickly absorbed b}^ the wood and the slight 
breaks in the skin dry up and but little rot will result. 

Packing apples in boxes is a fine art. requiring more 
skill to do proi)erly, thjui almost any other single operation 
in the fruit business. The box as a package for apples is 
comparatively iiew and has reached its most extensive 



Apples 95 

application in the irrigated sections of the West, although 
on account of its adaptability, and the fact that it has 
great advantages as the package for fancy fruit it is being 
adopted in all of the Eastern fruit-growing sections. 

In the Western fruit-growing sections it is the only 
commerciai package for apples, and possibly always will 
be, but in the East it is hardly possible that it will displace 
the barrel as an exclusive apple package. This is for the 
reason that in the Eastern states barrels can be had at a 
price proportionately less than boxes. The barrel is a 
hardwood package, while the box is of soft wood and is 
cheaper in the West on account of being closer to the 
great forests of white pine and spruce. The box has been 
adopted in the West, not only because it was the cheaper 
package, but because it reduced the amount of damage to 
the fruit in transit to the minimum, and also because it 
was the only package that enabled the growers to put up a 
uniform and a fancy pack. 

The sizes of these Western boxes have been varied 
from time to time in an attempt to get the box to fit the 
apple. But after a number of years experimenting, boxes 
of only two sizes have been adopted. One of these is 
known as the "standard," and is 10>2xll5/^xl8 inside meas- 
urement, and contains 2,176 cubic inches without the bulge. 
The "special" box is 10x11x20 inside measurement, contain- 
ing 2,200 cubic inches without bulge, and is used for varie- 
ties which run too long to pack in the standard box. 

The first essential in packing apples in boxes is to have 
perfect fruit. Nothing but the very finest apples should 
go into boxes in the Eastern states, and nothing grading 
lower than "choice'' is packed in the Western sections. 
Packing tables having well-padded or canvas bottoms are 
next in importance, and are so arranged that the packers 
will have a rack sufficiently large to hold two boxes at a 
convenient height in front of them for easy packing. A 
cull box should be on the floor behind the packer, into 
which the culls can be dropped as the fruit is sorted on 
the tables. 



96 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

The fruit as it is brought from the field in lug-boxes is 
carefully emptied out on the tables and sorted into the 
various sizes or grades to be packed. Each size is deter- 
mined by the diameter of the apple from cheek to cheek. 
For the smallest size packed the diameter is 25^ inches. In 
some sections it is the custom to have sorters or graders 
who have that particular bit of the work to do, and in 
other sections the packers must sort their fruit as they 
pack. In other sections again the graders must wipe the 
dust and spray from each fruit as it is passed to the pack- 
ers. Cotton flannel mitts, with the fleecy side turned out, 
makes the most satisfactory material. The apples are 
given a twist between the gloves, just enough to remove 
any spray that may be sticking to the fruit, but not hard 
enough to polish. Polishing is detrimental, as it reduces 
the keeping qualities. 

Grading machines for sizing apples have, up to the 
present time, not been altogether satisfactory, as they 
bruised the apples to such an extent as to make them unfit 
for packing under the Western standard. A machine built 
on altogether new principles has recently been patented by 
Mr. James M. Hamilton, of Grand Junction, Colo., and 
gives promise of proving very satisfactory. This machine 
is described in The Fruit-Grower of December, 1910, from 
which the following quotation is taken: 

Hamilton Grading Machine 

"No packer, no matter how expert he may be, can put up 
a first-class pack from ungraded fruit. Some growers 
object to the grading of fruit, believing the packers should 
be able to grade as they pack, but when a packer is putting 
up forty or more boxes of apples a day, the fruit is being 
handled so rapidly that small defects, such as punctures in 
the skin, will be passed unnoticed and result in defective 
packing. Grading ahead of the packers makes it possible 
for the packers to work more rapidly, as by having the 
fruit sized, they do not have to "paw" over the fruit on 
the table in order to get the size needed to fill the box. 



Hamilton Grading Machine 97 

"The grading is usually clone in the Northwestern fruit 
sections by persons who desire to learn packing. The new 
person is started into grading with a grading board having 
circular holes bored through it the size of the apples in 
each grade. One of these holes is 3^ inches in diameter, 
one 3 inches and one 2}^ inches. All apples that will not 
go through the 3><-inch hole are placed in a bin by them- 
selves, and are packed as three and one-half tier. The 
3 inch, and up to 3^2, are placed by themselves, and are 
packed as four-tier, while those between 3 and 2^ inches 
are packed as four and one-half tier, and those smaller than 
2^ are packed five tier. 

"Some growers who do not put up the very fancy packs 
make but two sizes, 3>< and 4^ tiers. The graders size 
the fruit so as to go into these two packs. A grader after 
using a sizing board for half a day or so, will become so 
accustomed to the sizes of the apples in the different 
grades that the grading board will not be needed for everj' 
apple, but it is always a good plan to keep the grading 
board or ring within convenient reach, and occasionally try 
the apples to see that the proper sizes are being kept. A 
person's eyes quickly become fatigued, and it is easy to let 
the fruit increase so gradually in size as to be unnoticed 
by the grader, unless tried several times a day with a siz- 
ing board. 

"The essential features of the Hamilton grader are two 
long parallel troughs, each about six inches wide, slightly 
inclined; each trough, or chute, is divided into three sec- 
tions, or compartments, the bottom of each of these sec- 
tions being formed by a heavy rubber belt. Thus there are 
really three of these rubber belts for each trough, and each 
belt has a succession of holes; the holes of each section 
are one-fourth inch larger in diameter than the preceding 
section, to accommodate apples of different sizes. 

"Our illustrations show the general appearance of the 
grader. One of the troughs is for apples of 'fancy' grade, 
the other for 'choice' grade. The troughs have padded 
sides, and as the bottom is rubber the apples are not 

(4> 



98 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

l^ruiscd at all. Most graders which have been made here- 
tofore have rolled the apples down an inclined chute and 
as they pass down this chute they drop through holes 
which are graduated in size from the smallest to the larg- 
est. These graders are bound to bruise the fruit more or 
less, and have not been satisfactory. 

"The Hamilton grader does not roll the apples; instead, 
they are carried along on moving belts and pass from one. 
section to the next, wnth a corresponding larger hole, with- 
out any bruising. If an apple does not drop through a hole 
in the first belt, it is carried to the next section, with a 
larger hole; it may drop through there into a bin with a 
canvas bottom, or it may be carried to the next section, 
with a still larger opening. 

Fruit Is Sorted by Hand 

"The apples are dumped from the picking boxes into 
the two bins at the head of the grader. Since the machine 
grades only as to size, men or women stand at each side 
of these bins to sort the fruit as to color, freedom from 
blemishes, etc. Two sorters can work at each of these 
bins. They simply sort the apples as to color, worm in- 
jury, etc., placing the perfect, well colored apples in the 
chute marked 'Fancy' and the apples which are a litle off 
c(dor into the chute marked 'Choice.' Culls are dropped 
into a box at their feet. 

"The belt forming the first division of the 'Fancy' chute 
is perforated with holes two and one-half inches in diam- 
eter; apples of less diameter fall through and are packed 
in the lower grades. It will be noted in the illustrations 
that curtains hang down at intervals in the troughs; these 
are made of heavy ducking and are merely to prevent ap- 
ples riding the belt between the holes, and they drag every 
apple into an opening. 

"Now, it frequently happens that apples are of smaller 
diameter one way than another, and may fail to go through 
the opening in the belt in one way, wdiereas if turned they 
would go through all right. To insure that all apples have 



100 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



abundant opportunity to go through. ]\Ir. Hamilton has 
arranged a series of 'joggers' which are below the belts 
and which catch the apples partly through the holes and 
turn them over slightly as they pass along. These 'jog- 
gers' are set at an angle, slanting with the direction the 
belt travels; they are held by slight springs so that if an 
apple were firmly caught in one of the openings it could 
not be bruised in the slightest in passing these 'joggers;' 
the springs would simply permit the latter to drop back 




Upper end of the machine with bins of apples on each 
side. The sorters work at these bins. 



and allow the apples to pass. As there are about three of 
these 'joggers' on each division of the belt, every apple is 
given three slight turns as it passes, and if it has a smaller 
diameter which will permit its passage through the hole, it 
is pretty sure to fall through before it passes to the belt 
with the larger openings. 

"The openings in the belt of the second section are two 
and three-quarters inches in diameter. We will assume 



Fruit Is Sorted By Hand 



101 



that the apple we have started on its journey through the 
grader has persistently declined to pass through the open- 
ings in the first belt; but if it is less than two and three- 
quarter inches in diameter it will drop through the open- 
ings in the second section into a bin at one side having a 
canvas bottom. If this apple should be more than two 
and three-quarter inches in diameter, and less than three 
inches, it will drop through the third section, for the holes 
in this belt are three inches in diameter. If it is larger 
than three inches then it passes on out at the end of the 
chute, 




In sorting-, "fancy" apples are placed in one chute and 
"choice" in the other. The machine does the rest. 



"The chute for the 'choice' grade is arranged exactly 
the same, except that the openings in the first belt are two 
and a quarter inches in diameter, the next section has holes 
two and a half inches, and the third section has openings 
two and three-fourths inches in diameter. 



102 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

Packers Each Handle One Size Apples 

"It will be noted there are three bins on each side of 
the grader. On the 'Fancy' side the first bin contains only 
perfect apples which are two inches and a half in diam- 
eter and less than two and three-quarters; the next bin 
contains perfect apples two and three-fourths inches in 
diameter, and less than three inches; the last bin contains 
perfect apples three inches or more in diameter. On the 
'Choice' side the same is true, except that the apples are 
one-fourth inch less in diameter, and of course they are off 
color in some way, and therefore are of second grade. 

"The work of this machine is absolute so far as grading 
the apples as to size is concerned; if the sorters .at the head 
of the machine have done their work well and have culled 
out all defective fruit, packers can work from these bins 
with their eyes shut. Of course the sorters will occasion- 
ally make mistakes, and a bad apple will get by them. 
There is this advantage, however, in this method of sort- 
ing: Their work can be inspected in the bins before the 
apples are packed, whereas under ordinary conditions, 
where the packer does both grading and sorting, the fruit 
can be inspected only after it is packed, and then it is fre- 
quently too late to catch the bad ones. 

"The packers working for Mr. Hamilton have never 
had any previous experience in packing apples in layers, 
but they soon became so expert that they were packing 
100 boxes a»day apiece, and the work was well done, too. 
In fact the packers, with the aid of the machine, were so 
speedy with their work they were working only every 
other day to give the picking force opportunity to catch 
up with them. Ordinarily packers are paid by the box, but 
since perfecting his grading machine Mr. Hamilton pays 
his packers by the day. The usual rate was 5 cents per 
box; now the packers are paid $3 per day, and if they pack 
100 boxes — and they are doing that right along — the cost 
of packing was reduced to 2 cents per box, with an addi- 
tional charge for the sorting. 

"Scores of experienced fruit men have seen the Hamil- 



Packers Each Handle One Size Apples lO'i 

ton grader at work this season, and all pronounce it a suc- 
cess. Mr. John F. Aioore, manager of the Grand Junction 
Fruit Growers' Association, believes that the use of this 
machine will solve the problem of the Grand Valley grow- 
ers in getting packers who can put up the tier pack. Mr. 
Hamilton's experience has been satisfactory, and he be- 




T^ooking- down on the belts. The holes in the upper por- 
tion are one- fourth inch larger than in the lower. 

lieves that he can layer his apples as cheaply now as he 
formerly could pack them with the old "jumble" pack. The 
machine certainly looks like a winner, and we believe it 
will help. to solve the problem of better grading and pack- 
ing everywhere." 



104 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 
Packing the Boxes 



Fruit that has the skin punctured should not be packed. 
Apples that have lost their stems, provided the skin is not 
broken where a stem is pulled out, may be packed, al- 
though too many such should not be put in any one box. 
First quality fruit must have the stem left in the apple. 




Four tier apples in a box packed "straight." 

There are three styles of packs used in the apple sec- 
tions of the Western states. One of these, the "jumble" 
pack, is confined to Colorado and portions of Utah, but 
v»ill possibly be displaced in a few years by the tier pack 
of the Northwest. In the far Northwest, two other styles, 
known as "straight" and "diagonal" tier packs are in use. 



Packing the Boxes 105 

The straight pack includes the three, four and five tier 
apples, and the rows of fruit run parallel to the sides of the 
box. 

In the "straight" pack the apples are placed side by side 
in rows, so that each apple rests directly on top of another. 
In the "jumble" pack the first layer is faced, either straight 
or diagonal, and the box then filled with apples in any 
position they happen to lay. It is a rapid method of filling 
boxes, but does not make a fancy package. 

The chief advantage of the diagonal pack is that it ac- 
commodates the half tiers, such as the S^'? and 4^/2 tier 
apples, the rows of which seem to run diagonally to the 
sides of the box. The "tier'' in each instance not depend- 
ing so much on the number of layers deep as the number 
of layers wide. The 4 tier running 125 to the box, the 4J!/4 
and 5 tier have five layers. The 3^ and 4 tier have four 
layers. The 4i/j tier apple is a good example of half- 
tier sizes, and consists of a size such that four apples will 
not fit tightly in one row, and there is not room in the row 
for five apples. So, to make it 4V2, three apples are placed 
in one row and two in the spaces between, so that in the 
two rows there are five apples, and in the diagonal rows 
there are five apples. 

This diagonal pack is meeting with much favor in the 
sections where it is being used, as it is not so hard on the 
apples as the straight pack. In the straight pack each fruit 
rests directly upon one below it, while in the diagonal it 
rests in the space between three or four. 

For fancy fruit it is the general custom to line the box 
with white paper. The size of it being 18x24, so that two 
sheets will line the box. It will be necessary to make a 
double fold in the paper at the corner of box, in order to 
prevent its being torn as the pressure causes the bottom to 
bulge outward. The object in having this paper is to pro- 
tect the fruit from dust and odors that may come through 
the cracks in the bottoms and along the sides, and to add 
to the appearance of the package. 

In some sections it is the custom to wrap each apple 
with paper as it is being placed in the box, and to put a 



106 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

layer of paper between each layer of apples to prevent 
bruising as much as possible. The paper for wrapping, 
apples should be kept in a little tray at the side of the box, 
and the paper placed in the tray with the smooth side up, 
in order that it will slip through the hands the more easily. 
It is most convenient to wear a rubber thumbstall to aid in 
picking up the paper, otherwise the packer must moisten 
his thumb on his tongue each time he. wraps an apple. 

In some sections where the layer pack is in use, each 
layer is separated by a sheet of heavy paper or cardboard, 
and each apple wrapped in tissue paper. This wrapping 
paper is so arranged about the fruit that the corners of the 
paper fold over the stem of each apple and serves as a 
cushion. But since the wrapping of each individual apple is, 
at the present time, believed to add nothing to the keeping 
quality of the fruit, some of the leading districts of the 
West do not wrap. 

Just how to put up each style of pack is a difficult mat- 
ter to describe, although it is easily learned from experi- 
ence. In the fruit districts of the Northwest there are be- 
tween thirty and forty different styles of packing in use, 
no two of which are exactly alike. These are due entirely 
to the variations in the size and shape of the different va- 
rieties of fruit that are grown. Of these numerous styles 
of packing, few persons ever use more than two styles in 
their own packing house, and these are the less compli- 
cated ones. 

Packing apples "straight" is comparatively simple, as it 
is merely the selection and arrangement of the fruit in 
straight rows parallel to the sides of the box. The rows 
will be three, four or five apples wide across the end of 
the box; from five to nine apples long and from three to 
five layers deep. And while this is the easiest system of 
packing apples, it is less flexible, accommodating fruits 
of fewer shapes, and is by far the hardest on the apples, 
as each' apple rests directly on the apple beneath it. 

The diagonal style of packing is somewhat less easily 
learned, but it accommodates a greater variety of sizes and 



Packing the Boxes 107 

shapes, and is not so hard on the fruit. Taking the 4>^ 
tier pack as an example, three apples are placed in the 
lower end of the box, one being in each corner and the 
third exactly half way between. Into each of the hollows 
made by these apples other apples are placed, making five 
apples in the two rows. In the hollow place directly 




The box on the left .«hows the beginning of the first 
Uiyer of a 41/^ -tier pack, the one on the left is the second 
layer in the same pack. 

over the apple in the left-hand corner another apple is 
placed, and likewise in the middle space. The fourth row 
is then started by putting an apple between these two and 
the fifth row" begun with an apple in the space against the 
side of the box. This process is repeated until the first 
layer is about half in, when the fingers of both hands are 
placed against the fruit and drawn down and towards the 
packer in such a way as to pull the fruit down snug. Com- 
plete the layer and repeat until the box is filled. 

One important thing to observe in putting the fruit in 



108 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



the box is to so arrange the fruit in each layer that the 
la3'er will be a little higher in the middle than at the ends 
ill order to make the bulge to the sides and hold the fruit 
in tightly to prevent bruising by shaking about. The mat- 
ter of obtaining just the right kind of a bulge is one that 




The finished box of 4 1,3 -tier apples. 



must be learned by experience. It is obtained by using a 
slightly larger apple in the middle than at the ends. It is 
a common practice among professional packers to work 
those apples which are slightly irregular m shape at the 
ends of the boxes, turning each apple so that its shortest 
diameter is up and down. Those fruits which are most 
nearly circular will then be put in the middle of the box, 



Packing the Boxes 



109 



and when the pack is finally finished the box will have a 
nice bulge of about half or three-quarters of an inch on 
each side. The apples for the bulge need to be started 
with the first layer, as they cannot be held until the last 
layer is in and then get a satisfactory bulge. 

As each la3^er in the box is completed a sheet of layer 
paper is put in, and when the box is filled the lining papers 
are folded up over the top and the box is then read}^ for 
the nailing press, where the lid is fastened on. 




The box on the left shows the beginning of a 4-tier 
"straight" pack, and on tlie right is the same size apples 
packed "special diagonal." 



A special form of press is in use for this operation, and 
consists of an arrangement of clamps which draw down 
the ends of the lid boards, leaving space for the cleat to be 
nailed on top of the lid, thereby holding them more firmly 
and preventing their splitting or pulling loose from the 
strain of the bulge. 

After the box is nailed up, stamp the name of the va- 



110 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



riety on the end just under the lid and mark just under 
it the number of apples in the box. The fruit buyers want 
to know how many apples are in a box, and with the tier 
pack it is an easy matter to tell exactly how many apples 
are in each box. After the number of apples has been 
marked, put on the number of tiers and the number given 
to the grower by the association to which he may belong. 
If a lithographed label is used, paste it on the other end of 
the box and mark it with the name of the variety, tier 
and number of apples. 

When this has been done place the box on its side and 
thereafter handle it on the side, as if it is placed so that 
the weight comes on the bulge the fruit will be bruised. 

The following table gives the size of the apple and the 
number in a standard box when packed diagonally in lay- 
ers: 

Table of Apples in Box 

STANDARD BOX: 



Tier 



Pack 



No. Apples No. Rows 
in Kow in Width 



No. Layers No. Apples 
in Depth in Bo.x 



3 


Straight 3 


5-5 


3 


3 


45 


3/. 


Diagonal 2-2 


4-4 


3^/ 


4 


64 


3/. 


" 2-2 


4-5 


3^ 


4 


72 


3K> 


2-2 


5-5 


3/. 


4 


80 


^V2 


" 2-2 


5-6 


3VS 


4 


88 


4/. 


3-2 


6-6 


4]/, 


5 


150 


4K^ 


3-2 


6-7 


Wi 


5 


163 


4K- 


3-2 


i - t 


Wi 


5 - 


175 



SPECIAL BOX: 



3 


Straight 3 


6-6 


3 


3 


54 


3 


3 


i - i 


3 


3 


63 


3>^ 


Diagonal 2-2 


6-6 


3/ 


4 


96 


3/2 


" 2-2 


6-7 


3/ 


4 


104 


3/2 


" 2-2 


7-7 


3/ 


4 


112 


3/2 


2-2 


7-8 


3/2 


4 


120 


3 


Straight 4 


8-8 


4 


4 


.128 


4 


4 


9-9 


4 


4 


144 


4/ 


Diagonal 3-2 


7-8 


W2 


5 


185 


4/ 


3-2 


8-8 


4/-5 


5 


200 



Spraying 111 



CHAPTER V 



Spraying 

Fruit growing as a commercial proposition met with 
its greatest boom with the discovery of effective means of 
controlling the insect pests and diseases which affected 
the various orchard crops. It was about the year 1876 that 
effective insecticides were discovered, this being through 
the discovery of the value of Paris green in controlling 
the potato beetle. Le Baron, the state entomologist of 
Illinois, made the discovery and suggested at the time that 
such means would also prove effective in controlling the 
damages of the canker worm. This suggestion was fol- 
lowed by an orchardist in New York state, who applied 
Paris green to his apple trees in the spring of 1878, and 
at the harvest of that crop he found that the damage from 
codling moth had also been very materially reduced. In 
the same year Prof. J. L. Budd used London purple for the 
same purpose in an orchard in Iowa, finding, as did the 
New York state orchardist, that there were fewer wormy 
apples where the spray had been applied than in other 
parts of the orchard. At first the fruit growers were skep- 
tical of the value of the means of preventing worminess, 
so that up to 1885 the practice had been in a purely ex- 
perimental stage, but thereafter became accepted as the 
only effective means of preventing the damages of the 
codling moth. 

The practice of spraying to control fungi had a separate 
origin. It was discovered by the vineyardists of Bordeaux, 
France, in an attempt to protect their vines from downy 



112 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



mildew, a disease which had been introduced from Amer- 
ica. The effectiveness of this means of preventing fungous 
troubles was cjuickly taken up by the United States De- 
partment of Agriculture and the state experiment stations 
and these have prosecuted the work up to the present time 
with a persistency and effitiency vxdiich has won the ad- 
miration of the world. 
















' "•■-'" <fi 


■ '"i 


^ • 


h ' 1 


m 




§ 




■^ 




A Barrel Outfit is Suitable for Small Orchards. 



The operation of ^.praying has come to be regarded 
as of vital importance to the horticulturist, taking rank 
along with each of the other important cultural practices. 
Professor L. H. Bailey says that "Spraying is only one of 
the several practices which are of fundamental importance 
in the care of fruit plantations. Tillage, fertilizing, pruning 



Spraying 113 

and other cardinal methods in pomology and their impor- 
tance IS none the less because spraying has proved to be so 
essential. Spraying is wholly a secondary operation, and 
its importance is the greater as the other care of the plan- 
tation is efficient, for the value of the product is thereby 
heightened. Many 'old and neglected orchards are scarcely 
worth the trouble and cost of spraying. The operation of 
spraying is not always necessary, and it does not, there- 
fore, always give beneficial results. Unless insect or fun- 
gus troubles are present, there is no occasion for the oper- 
ation; but inasmuch as these enemies are nearly always 
troublesome, and as no one can definitely prognosticate 
their absence, spraying comes to be an insurance. The 
risk is too great to allow the practice to be omitted in any 
year in apple and some other orchards, and the practice is 
efficient only when it anticipates trouble." 

On this account and on account of the tact that so 
many fruit growers have refused to spray, or spray in an 
inefficient manner, the plant diseases have been increasing 
in numbers each year in all fruit sections so that it is 
highly important that every fruit grower realize the real 
insurance value of spraying and prepare to do thorough 
and effective work. In fact in some of the more pro- 
gressive Western states where the fruit growers strive to 
put out nothing but the highest class of products, state 
laws have been enacted which make it imperative that an 
orchardist spray his orchard for the control of insect 
diseases, whether such pests are actually present in the 
orchard or not. 

Hand and Power Pumps 

In commercial orchard practice there are only two types 
of spraying machines that need to be considered, one of 
these is the pumps that are operated by hand and the other 
the pumps which are operated by power derived from 
gas, compressed air, gasoline engine or traction power. 
There are many different makes of each of these machines 
and there are especially desirable features connected with 
most all of them. However, it is the universal statement 



114 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

of all practical orchardists who are making a success of 
their spraying work, that the hand power outfits are not 
suited to an orchard covering more than four or five acres. 
This is because the necessary pressure and speed cannot 
be obtained in hand power machines to cover the larger 
acreage in the limited amount of time that is available. 

In point of time, any application of spray mixture must 
be applied when it will do the most good, and with insects 
this limits the number of working days to just a few, pos- 
sibly ten days, when the insects can be most effectively 
reached. The spraying must be done during that time, as 
either before or after that period the spray mixture 
will not be so effective as the insects will have passed out 
of reach. The same thing is true of fungous diseases and the 
grower must know something of the life and habits of the 
pests he is combatting. 

The time has long since passed when it is reasonable 
for any orchardist to ask if it pays to spray. That problem 
has been so thoroughly proven and so widely advertised 
that anyone who asks such a question, especially if he has 
been anyway concerned in fruit growing or has read, even 
casually, any publication treating on the subject of fruit 
growing, cannot help being convinced that spraying does 
pay, and pay well, when properly done. 

But to make it pay the best the spraying equipment 
must be suited to the conditions under which it must be 
used. The chief points to be considered in this respect are 
the kind of plants to be sprayed — that is, whether they are 
strawberries, grapes or tree fruits; the acreage to be cov- 
ered, for if there are more than five, or at the most ten 
acres, hand power outfits will not prove as effective as 
power machines. Then in the make or style of machine 
one needs to consider the general construction and ar- 
rangement of the outfit: the ease and convenience of han- 
dling under actual working conditions; the probable ability 
of the machine to handle the required work; the efficiency 
and suitability of the accessories. 

In localities where spraying has not become established 
as one of the important practices in connection with or- 



Hand and Power Pumps 



115 



charding" the growers are likely to expect too much service 
from a single machine, whether it be a hand or power out- 
fit. Instances in the Middle West are very common where 
the growers will try to cover 200 or 300 acres with a single 
power machine. 




A Power bprayer in Operation. 



There are several different makes of power machines 
on the market, such as those deriving their power from 
steam, gasoline, compressed air or gas, but up to the pres- 



116 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

cnt time the gasoline power machines have proven them- 
selves the most effective, economical and convenient for 
use under all ordinary conditions. On steep hillsides, how- 
ever, the gas machine possesses decided advantages on ac- 
count of its light weight and the nearness to the ground 
at which the load can be carried. But such machines are 
objectionable on account of the expense of the gas used 
for power, and the usual lack of facilities for keeping the 
spraying mixture thoroughly agitated while being applied. 
With some kinds of spray mixtures, too, the gas possibly 
causes sorne undesiiable chemical changes. 

In the selection of a gasoline power outfit one must be 
governed to a large extent by the amount of work that is 
to be done with the machine and the conditions under 
which it is performed. Where the orchard is small and the 
interests diversified, it may be easily detached and used 
for other purposes than that of spraying. 

The height of the wheels of the wagon carrying the 
spraying machine needs to be considered in the selection 
of a power machine, as well as the width of the tires. High 
wheels reduce draft on the team, but increase the danger 
of upsetting on steep hillsides. On plowed ground, espe- 
cially in the spring when it is more or less muddy, wide 
tires are an advantage, but in rocky land the narrow tired 
wheels are much more serviceable. In this connection, no 
matter which is the height of the wheels, or the width of 
the tires, it is highly important that there be.no waste 
space between the frame and the engines and that the 
frame be constructed so as to permit of the shortest pos- 
sible turns without cramping or binding the wheels. 

• The hand pumps are very much more diversified in 
shape and construction than the engine power machines, 
as they are adapted to a far greater variety of uses. These 
will vary from the hand pumps which can be mounted on 
the spraying tank, or in a barrel, or attached to a knapsack 
and carried on one's back. 

All of the working parts should be of hard brass or 
iron, as aluminum, which has been used in a small way. 




< 



< 

Q 
o 

V 
5 

O 

O 

-t-> 

c 



G 



be 



118 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

wears too fast. The nozzles especially need to be of brass, 
and their weight, especially for power machines, is of no 
serious consequence, as the back pressure from the pump 
more than balances the weight. For general orchard spray- 
ing the types of nozzles are limited to two. These are the 
"bordeaux" and the large chambered nozzle. The bor- 
deaux is the nozzle which is most desired for the first 
spraying for codling moth, as practiced in the Western 
states. The other is the best for use when a mist-like 
spray is wanted, as is the case in the Middle Western and 
Eastern states for applying bordeaux mixture. 

In sections where bordeaux mixture is most extensively 
used it will be an advantage to have all of the working 
parts of the machinery of brass, which comes in contact 
with the liquid, as this metal is not corroded by the spray 
mixture, as is iron. But where lime-sulphur is used most, 
then the working parts need to be of iron or steel, as this 
mixture corrodes brass. On this account steel tanks are 
coming into use in districts where lime-sulphur is used. 
Such tanks are especially desirable, as they are lighter and 
not liable to dry out, do not become waterlogged and are 
far more convenient to handle in the field. 

In all machines it is important that there be an effective 
agitator for keeping the liquids stirred constantly while 
being applied to prevent the heavier part of the material 
from settling to the bottom and causing irregularity in the 
strength of the material that is applied. The most satis- 
factory agitators for power machines are those which are 
built on the propeller type, with blades sufficiently long 
to cause vigorous circulation throughout the entire tank of 
mixture when revolved at the usual rate of 120 revolutions 
per minute. 

One of the greatest sources of lost time in a large or- 
chard is reloading after the load is sprayed out, but this loss 
of time can largely be eliminated if there are suitable con- 
veniences for reloading. This should consist of a reloading 
pump, unless the mixing station is on an elevated platform 
above the level of the spray tank. There are two types of 
reloading pumps that are available, one being the rotary 



Spraying Materials 119 

and the other a plunger pump, either of which is capable 
of handling 30 to 40 gallons of spray mixture per minute. 
Where bordeaux mixture is used, however, there is some 
danger from the rotary pump becoming more or less worn 
by the friction with, the gritty particles in the lime, and 
priming will be necessary in order to get the pump to work- 
ing satisfactorily. For use with supply tanks, plunger 
pumps are probably the most effective and satisfactory, 
sin<:e it is necessary in this case, to pump the prepared 
mixture Vith them. 

Spraying Materials 

.« 

Since the discovery of effective means of controlling 
insect and fungous diseases of plants a great number of 
preparations have been devised for the control of special 
diseases on certain crops. Such a formidable list of these 
preparations have been published that it would seem at 
first glance that one would need an elaborate chemical 
laboratory in order to prepare the materials. However, 
the years of scientific and practical experimentation along 
this line have eliminated many of these spraying mate'rials 
so that the plantsman of today needs know how to prepare 
less than a dozen different sprays in order to control any 
of the diseases for which a remedy is known. 

There are two distinct groups of these spraying ma- 
terials, one of them, called insecticides, is for the control 
of insect diseases, and the other, called fungicides, for the 
control of fungous diseases. Of these materials there are 
three groups of insecticides, such as (1) food poisons, (2) 
contact poisons, and (3) suffocating poisons. Which of 
these poisons to use will depend altogether on the kind of 
insect and the plant upon which it is feeding, so that for ef- 
fective use of any insecticide, it is important that the 
plantsman know something of the habit of the insect, and 
just in what stage of its life it is most easily reached with 
the poison. 

(O Food Poisons. These materials are composed of 
substances which must be eaten by the insect as it chews 



120 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



the foliage or fruits of the plants to be protected, and for 
this reason kill the insect by actual poisoning. Of these 
materials comoounds containing arsenic, such as Paris 




A convenient method of making spray mixture. Every 
barrel is plainly labeled so no mistakes can be made in 
mixing. 



green and lead arsenate, are the most common, and arc 
applied fur such insects as the codling moth, canker worm 
or curculio. and applied either in water, as a dry powder 
or mixed with some substance which is to serve as a bait. 



Resin-Lime Mixture 121 

(2) Contact Sprays. These materials are applied for 
the purpose of destroying those insects which get their 
nourishment by inserting the beak into the plants and 
sucking the sap, ^rather than by chewing the flesh of the 
fruit or the leaves. Plant lice and scales belong to this 
group of insects, and since they suck their food, they 
cannot be reached by those poisons which are to be chewed 
up and SAvallowed. These sprays are more or less caustic 
and penetrating, and kill by coming in contact with the 
bodies of the insects. 

(3) Suffocation Methods. It frequently happens that in 
some places, such as greenhouses and hotbeds, destructive 
insects get on plants which cannot be sprayed with either 
contact or food poisons, and the insects must be disposed 
of by some means that suffocate them by filling up their 
breathing pores, or cause their death by irritation. Such 
means as these are useful only in the greenhouse, and for 
insects that may work in the soil, in seeds, or on fruits or 
vegetables that are about ready for the market. Of chief 
importance among these suffocating poisons are tobacco, 
carbon bisulphide, pyrethrum and hydrocyanic acid gas. 

Insecticides 

Resin-Lime Mixture 

Stock Solution. 
Pulverized resin, 5 pounds. 
Concentrated lye, 1 pound. 
Fish oil, 1 pint. 
Water, 5 gallons. 

Dissolve the resin and oil together in a kettle over a 
warm fire, and when it has become well dissolved and 
somewhat cooled off, add slowly the lye and stir hard. 
To the mixture add about two gallons of water and boil 
it hard for about an hour, or until the mixture will dissolve 
in cold water. When it has reached this condition add 
enough water to make five gallons, and use this as the 
stock solution for use in the following: 



122 The Frult-Growers Guide-Book 

Stock solution. 1 gallon. 
Water, IG gallons. 
Milk of lime whitewash, :! gallons. 
Paris green, 4 ounces. 

The object of this preparation is to obtain an adhesive 
material which will cause the poison to stick to smooth 
leaves. It may also be used with bordeaux mixture in the 
proportion of 2 parts of the stock solution to 48 parts of 
the bordeaux mixture. 

Kerosene Emulsion 

Hard soap, Yz pound. 
Hot water (soft), 1 gallon. 
Kerosene, 2 gallons. 

Cut the soap into small pieces and dissolve it in the 
hot water. Add the kerosene immediately and churn it 
violently at the same time. Pumping the mixture back 
into itself for five or ten minutes with a hand force pump 
or syringe is an excellent method of mixing, as the ma- 
terials must be mixed until they form a thick creamy com- 
bination in which no free oil shows on the surface. 

This is a concentrated mixture and must be diluted 
before using. For use on apple and pear foliage, one gallon 
of the emulsion should be diluted with nine gallons of 
water. For cherry, peach or plum foliage, dilute with 
twelve gallons, and for house plants dilute with fifteen 
gallons. 

Tobacco 

Tobacco is used extensively in several forms for the 
control of insect troubles. It can be obtained in the 
market in several forms, either as a liquid, powder or 
stems, to be used according to conditions. The fine powder 
is used extensively about greenhouses and hotbeds for 
green aphis, and in nurseries and orchards for woolly 
aphis. It is scattered over the infested parts undiluted. 



Lime-Sulphur 123 

The essential poison of tobacco is extracted and ap- 
pears on the market in several forms, as "black leaf," 
"nicofume," "tobacine," etc., and are used either as fumi- 
gants for greenhouses and hotbeds or as sprays for or- 
chard insects such as woolly aphis, green aphis and some 
other sucking insects. 

Miscible or Soluble Oils 

Several brands of soluble oils can be had on the market. 
These are mostly petroleum products, so treated that they 
mix quite freely with water, and can be used for such in- 
sects as scale and aphis. These materials are efficient and 
useful, but must be used with caution, as when too strong 
they may cause serious injury to the plants. They should 
be used at strengths of not less than one part of oil to fif- 
teen parts of water. 

Lime-Sulphur 

Stone lime, 15 pounds. 

Sulphur, flour or flowers, 15 pounds. 

Water, 50 gallons. 

Slake the lime with some water in a large iron kettle. 
As it is slaking add the sulphur gradually and mix it with 
the slaking lime. Add ten or fifteen gallons of water to 
the mass and boil for about one hour, or until the mixture 
becomes an orange red or greenish color. Then add the 
remainder of the water to bring it up to a volume of 50 
gallons, when it is ready for use. 

Instead of boiling this mixture over a fire, it may be 
cooked by turning a jet of live steam from an engine boiler 
into the liquid, proceeding in the same manner as when 
the cooking is done in a kettle, except that the cooking 
with steam can be done in a barrel or wooden tank. 

This mixture should be used only on dormant trees, as 
it is liable to cause serious scalding if used at this strength 
on foliage. 

This material is put up commercially in concentrated 
form by a number" of firms, directions for the use of which 



124 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

vary with the brand, and they need to be used according 
to the directions which accompany each brand. Where 
small quantities are needed there is a distinct advantage 
in using the commercial brands, but where large quantities 
are needed, and especially if a steam boiler i's available, the 
home mixture may be the cheapest. 

Carbon Bisulphide 

This is a heavy, volatile liquid used largely for the de- 
struction of insects in stored grain. The fumes are very 
inflammable and caution must be taken to keep the liquid 
away from a flame, or even a lighted pipe. It has a very 
unpleasant odor and comes in large tin cans holding va- 
rious quantities as desired. It needs to be used at the rate 
of 1 pound to every 1,000 cubic feet of space. The fumes 
of this liquid are heavier than air, so the liquid should be 
placed in shallow pans on the top of the bin of grain, and 
the bin should be as tight as possible. It is best to cover 
the bin with a canvas to keep the fumes in, and should not 
be uncovered or air admitted for 24 hours. 

Hydrocyanic Acid Gas 

Sulphuric acid, commercial, 1.83 sp. gr., 2 fluid ozs. 
Potassium cyanide, 98 to 100 per cent, 1 ounce. 
Water, 4 ounces. 

Pour the water into an earthen dish and add to it the 
sulphuric acid. Do not pour the Vvater into the acid, as it 
will spatter and burn the hands or clothing. Weigh out 
the cyanide and put it into a paper sack, being careful to 
not inhale any of the fumes that come from it, as they are 
highly poisonous. Place the vessel in the position desired, 
then drop in the paper sack of cyanide and leave the room 
immediately. The gas is liberated very quickl}^ and is 
deadly poisonous. 

For nursery stock in the dormant condition use the 
above quantity for every 100 cubic feet of space. The house 
or fumigating box should be as tight as possible, and the 



Tanglefoot 125 

fumes need to be confined for one hour, after which it 
should be thoroughly ventilated. If the fumes are con- 
fined in a tight room, means for opening the ventilators 
should be provided from the outside, and one should not 
attempt to enter until after the place has been well venti- 
lated. 

In fumigating the greenhouse the above quantities are 
sufficient for 1,000 cubic feet of space where plants are 
growing. Greenhouse plants vary greatly in their ability 
to withstand the effects of hydrocyanic acid gas, and plants 
such as tomatoes, roses and ferns are easily injured. In 
the greenhouse the fumigation should be done at night 
when there is no wind, and the house should be as dry 
as possible, and at 60 degrees temperature. 

Pyrethrum 

This is a very fine, light brown powder made from the 
flower heads of a certain species of Pyrethrum. It is prac- 
tically harmless to man, but the fumes which it liberates 
on exposure to air are suffocating to insects. It appears 
on the market in three commercial forms: 

Persian insect powder, made from the heads of pyreth- 
rum roseum, a plant native to the Caucasus region and 
found under cultivation in America. Dalmatian insect 
powder, and Buhach, made from Pyrethrum cinerariae- 
fclium. This is grown in California for this special pur- 
pose. 

Any of these insect powders, when fresh and pure, are 
effective for their purpose, but they quickly lose their ef- 
fectiveness on exposure to air. These powders are usually 
used by being sprinkled around over the insects, or in 
places frequented by insects, such as house flies and mos- 
quitoes. They may be mixed with water and sprinkled 
over the plants. 

Tanglefoot 

This is the material from which sticky fly paper is 
made, and is useful for painting a ring around the base of 



126 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

tree trunks to keep insects from crawling up from the 
soil. This is especially the case with woolly aphis. These 
insects when born are inclined to travel, and since the first 
brood in spring come from the old ones which have hiber- 
nated on the roots, they climb the trees and live on the 
branches during the summer. They can be prevented by 
tying a ring of paper, underlaid with cotton, around the 
trunk and applying the tanglefoot to the paper. If applied 
directly to the bark it may cause injury. 

Paris Green 

This insecticide has been used for a greater number 
of years than any other now in use, and when perfectly 
pure it is very reliable, but as it is a rather coarse crysta- 
line material, it settles rapidly to the bottom of the spray 
tank unless the contents are kept thoroughly stirred. It 
is applied in connection with quick lime, the lime being 
added to prevent the Paris green from burning the foliage. 

It is prepared for use as follows: 

Paris green. 1 pound. 
Quick lime, 4 to 5 pounds. . 
Water, 160-200 gallons. 

Alix the Paris green with a little water and stir it to a 
thin paste; meanwhile slake the lime to a thin paste and 
then add the paste of Paris green and mix the two thor- 
oughly, after which strain the mixture through a fine seive 
into the spray tank containing the requisite amount of 
water. If it is desired to use the poison in connection with 
a fungicide, bordeaux mixture C'in take the place of the 
water in diluting the above mixture. In applying this mix- 
ture to the trees or plants it is necessary to keep it well 
stirred all of the time, as the Paris green will settle to the 
bottom of the vessel, thereby giving irregular distribution. 

Arsenate of Lead 

Arsenate of lead is now the leading insecticide, having 
taken the place of Paris green for all orchard purposes. 



Poisoned Baits 127 

There are many brands of this article upon the market and 
all are fairly pure and ecjually effective in controlling insect 
pests. The ready made arsenate of lead is all ready to use 
by diluting one to three pounds of the paste with fifty gal- 
lons of water. 

As the commercial brands of arsenate of lead come in 
cans or kegs and in the form of a stiff white paste quite 
like white lead paint, it is made more difficult to handle 
by the paste drying out. For this reason many persons 
who have only a small amount of spraying to do prefer to 
make up their own arsenate, as it is easily made and is 
slightly cheaper than the commercial brands. Arsenate of 
lead can be made b}^ the following formula: 

Arsenate of soda, 4 ounces. 
Acetate of lead, 11 ounces. 
Water, 15-20 gallons. 

Dissolve the arsenate of soda in two quarts of water 
and the acetate of lead m four quarts of water in wooden 
vessels. When dissolved pour them into the required 
amount of water. A milk white material will result, and 
it is ready to use. This material can be used at a greater 
strength without injuring the foliage of plants than can 
any of the other spray poisons. It can be added to bor- 
deaux mixture or to lime-sulphur in the same proportion 
as when water is used. 

Poisoned Baits 

Sow-bugs, grasshoppers, cut worms and some other in- 
sects can be destroyed by poisoned baits. There are va- 
rious form-s of this method of destroying insects. Grass 
leaves dipped in Paris green or arsenate of lead is often 
an effective means of getting rid of cut worms. As a 
means of destroying grasshoppers a bran-arsenic mash is 
very successful and is made as follows: 

White arsenic. 1 pound. 
Brown sugar, 1 to 2 pounds. 
Bran, 6 pounds. 



128 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

Mix these -materials together and then add enough 
water to make a thick mash and then scatter around the 
plants that are attacked, placing a spoonful in a place. 

For cut worms in onion fields a dry bait has been found 
very effective when made as follows: 

Paris green, 1 pound. 
Aliddlings, 15 pounds. 
Bran, 15 pounds. 

Mix these materials thoroughly and scatter broadcast 
about the borders of the garden or the plants that are at- 
tacked. It may be easily scattered along the rows by the 
use of the seed drill. 

Hellebore 

Powdered fresh hellebore is of value in destroying in- 
sects on small fruits which are nearly ready to market and 
on which it is undesirable to use arsenical poisons. It must 
be used while fresh, as it loses its poisonous properties 
when exposed to the air. and it can be dusted over the 
plants or applied as a spray made thus: 

Hellebore, 1 ounce. 
Water, 2 gallons. 

Resin Wash 

Resin wash is used in California for several of the scales 
v.^hich infest the citrus fruits. It can be used as a summer 
spray for San Jose scale, but is not as effective as winter 
applications of lime-sulphur. It is made as follows: 

Resin, 20 pounds. 
Concentrated lye, 4 pounds. 
Fish oil, 23^2 pounds. 
Water, 100 gallons. 

Place the lye, resin and oil in a kettle and cover well 
with water and boil for about two hours, adding water as 
needed. Boil for about two hours or until the compound 
resembles strong black coffee. Dilute to one-third of the 



Fungicides 129 

final bulk with hot water, or with cold water added slowly 
over the fire, thus making a stock mixture. Dilute to 100 
gallons when ready for use. 

Fungicides 

Fungi constitute a group of plants of a very low order 
in which the green coloring matter common in all culti- 
vated plants is not developed. For this reason these plants 
are unable to digest for themselves the crude food ma- 
terials available in the soil and air, and must get their food 
from the bodies of other plants which may be either dead 
or living. When these fungi are found on dead and de- 
caying plants, such as rotting wood, they are called sapro- 
phites, but where they are found on the bodies of living 
plants, either on the root, leaves or fruits, they are called 
parasites. On account of this tendency for some of them 
to live on living green plants, they cause serious trouble 
oftentimes, known as "fungous diseases." Without proper 
protection the host plant is often entirely destroyed, or is 
unable to mature a satisfactory crop of fruit or seed. 

The most common fungous diseases are known as mil- 
dews, leaf spots, cankers, fruit rots, scabs, rusts, etc.. and 
since the most of these fungi live within the host, it is 
impossible to reach them after the host has become in- 
fected. For this reason preventive measures must be un- 
dertaken to keep the plants in a sanitary condition and 
reduce the possibility of their becoming infected with the 
fungus parasite. This can be done by spraying the plant 
with some fungicide which will prevent the fungus from 
gaining entrance either by killing the spores or preventing 
their germination. 

For the most effective and positive results to be ob- 
tained from thorough spraying, it is best to keep the plan- 
tation in as clean and sanitary a condition as possible, 
through the removal of rubbish which may serve as the 
hiding place ever winter of numerous insects, and fungus 
spores; to keep the ground cleared of objectionable weeds 
and grass; to keep dead limbs out of the trees, and dis- 

(5) 



130 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

cTiscd leaves and fruit disposed of either by gatherins? and 
burning" or turning them under by pbiwing and cultivating. 

Bordeaux Mixture 

Copper sulphate (blue-stoneorblue vitriol), 4 pounds. 
Fresh lump lime, 4 pounds. 
Water, 50 gallons. 

Dissolve the copper sulphate and slake the lime in a 
part of the water. When the lime has all slaked to a fine 
powder and the copper sulphate thoroughly dissolved, 
dilute each of them with half of the remaining volume of 
water, then pour them together, stirring constantly. A 
more convenient method is to dilute the materials in suit- 
able tanks and run them together and at the same time 
into the spray tank. 

Stock solutions of either copper sulphate or lime may 
be made up in the proportions of one pound of each to a 
gallon of water. To make up the spraying mixtures, four 
gallons of each can be measured out, diluted and mixed as 
before. The solutions of copper sulphate and lime should 
never be brought together in strong solutions as they do 
not make a satisfactory spraying material when thus 
treated. 

Soda Bordeaux Mixture 

Copper sulphate, 4 pounds. 

Caustic soda (soda lye), 1 to !]/> pounds. 

Water, 50 gallons. 

Dissolve the copper sulphate in water as for the regular 
bordeaux mixture, and then add just enough of the soda 
lye dissolved in water to neutralize the mixture. There 
should be no more nor less of the soda lye used than is 
necessar^^ to neutralize the mixture, and one will need a 
strip of blue and red litmus paper to do the testing. When 
neutral neither of the papers will change color, while if 
the mixture is acid the blue paper will turn red, and if too 
much of the soda has been used, the red paper will turn 



Sulphur 131 

blue. Some persons prefer to add about a pound of the 
soda and then neutralize with lime water, as there is not 
so much danger of getting it too strongly alkaline and 
burning the fruit. 

This spraying material is not so easily made up as bor- 
deaux mixture, but it has the added advantage of not soil- 
ing maturing fruits and ornamental plants. When care- 
fully made good results can be expected, but on account of 
its scalding the plants unless carefully neutralized, it is 
not generall}^ recommended. 

Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate 

Copper carbonate, 5 ounces. 
Ammonia, 26 degrees Baume, 3 pints. 
Water, 50 gallons. 

Dilute the ammonia with five or six quarts of water 
and make a paste of the copper carbonate in water. Pour 
the ammonia over the paste, using just enough to dissolve 
it Do not apply more than is necessary. If any copper 
carbonate remains undissolved after standing in the am- 
monia for some few minutes, add a little more ammonia. 
Then dilute to fifty gallons. 

This makes a deep blue solution that is not as effective 
a fungicide as either bordeaux mixture or the soda bor- 
deaux, but it has the advantage of containing no sediment 
and can be used on ripening fruits and ornamental plants. 
It deteriorates after standing exposed to the air for some 
time. 

Potassium Sulphide 

Potassim sulphide, 3 ounces. 
Water, 10 gallons. 

This material should be dissolved and it is ready for use. 
Chiefly used for the control of powdery mildew on goose- 
berries. 

Sulphur 

Dry sulphur is used in a small way for the prevention 
of some of the mildews which attack plants in the field, 



132 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

and can be mixed dry and sprinkled along the drills with 
onion seed for the prevention of onion smut. In green- 
house it is mixed with equal parts of lime and painted on 
the heating pipes, where it is slowly evaporated for the 
control of rose mildew. 

Formalin 

Formalin (40%), 1 pint. 
Water, oO to 50 gallons. 

For the treatment of potato scab the seed potatoes are 
soaked for half an hour in the stronger solution. For oat 
and wheat smut the weaker solution should be used at the 
rate of about one gallon to each bushel of seed. The grain 
for treatment should be poured out on a tight floor and 
sprinkled with the solution. It should then be shoveled 
over into a pile and thoroughly mixed up so that each 
grain is coated with the solution. Then cover it with a 
canvas and allow to stand for a couple of hours before 
spreading out to dry. 

Self-Boiled Lime-Sulphur 

This spray mixture is one of the newest fungicides, and 
has proven especially effective in the control of peach scab 
and brown rot. Prof. W. M. Scott of the United States 
Department of Agriculture prepares this mixture as fol- 
lows: 

Fresh stone lime, 8 pounds. 

Sulphur (either flowers or flour), 8 pounds. 

Water, 50 gallons. 

"In mild cases of peach scab and brown rot a weaker 
"mixture, containing 6 pounds of each ingredient to 50 gal- 
lons of water, may be used with satisfactor}^ results. The 
n)ixture can best be prepared in rather large quantities — 
sa}', enough for 200 gallons at a time, making the formula 
'.>:l pounds of lime and 32 pounds of sulphur, to be cooked 
with a small quantity of water (8 or 10 gallons) and then 
diluted to 200 gallons. 



Self-Boiled Lime-Sulphur 133 

"The lime should be placed in a barrel and enough 
"water poured on to almost cover it. As soon as the lime 
begins to slake the sulphur should be added after first 
running it through a sieve to break up the lumps. The 
mixture should be constantly stirred and more water added 
as needed to form a thick paste at first and then gradually 
a thin paste. The lime will supply enough heat to boil the 
mixture several minutes. As soon as it is well slaked, 
water should be added to cool the mixture and prevent 
further cooking. It is then ready to be strained into the 
spray tank, diluted and applied. 

"The stage at which the cold water should be poured irk 
varies with different limes. Some limes are so sluggish 
in slaking that it is difficult to obtain enough heat from 
them to cook the mixture at all, while other limes become 
intensely hot on slaking and care must be taken not to 
allow the boiling to proceed too far. If the mixture is 
allowed to remain hot fifteen or twenty minutes after the 
slaking is completed, the sulphur gradually goes into solu- 
tion, combining with the lime to form sulphids, which are 
injurious to peach foliage. It is therefore very important, 
especially with hot limes, to cool the mixture quickly by 
adding a few buckets of water as soon as the lumps of 
lime have slaked down. The intense heat, violent boiling 
and constant stirring result in a uniform mixture of finely 
divided sulphur and lime, with only a very small percentage 
of the sulphur in solution. The mixture should be strained 
to take out the coarse particles of lime, but the sulphur 
should be carefully worked through the strainer." 



134 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



CHAPTER VI 



Orchard Pests and Diseases 

Green Aphis of the Apple 

This is one of the common green lice that curls the 
leaves of the apple tree. It is an extremely common and 
troublesome insect in some parts of the country and is 
essentially one which feeds on the leaves by sucking the 
juice. The female lays eggs on the twigs of the new shoots 
in the fall, and these hatch just at the time the buds are 
beginning to open in the spring, and are ready to insert 
their beaks into the tissues of the unfolding leaves. These 
insects that hatch in the spring are all females, and in 
about two or three weeks they begin giving birth to living 
young, and the numbers then increase very rapidly. Early 
in the summer a generation of winged individuals appears, 
and fly from tree to tree and from orchard to orchard with 
the prevailing winds. In the latter part of summer a gen- 
eration of winged males and wingless, egg-laying females 
appears and a little later the females begin laying the 
greenish black eggs which are to carry through the winter. 

Remedy: It is quite difficult to kill the eggs of this in- 
sect. Strong applications of lime-sulphur have been help- 
ful, but the best methods are with tobacco sprays, such 
as "black leaf" or "black leaf 40" at about the time the eggs 
have hatched and the insects are working themselves into 
the opening buds. Kerosene emulsion is also effective. 

Woolly Aphis. 

In mau}^ places this insect is more troublesome than 
the green aphis. It is readily recognized by its reddish 



Woolly Aphis 



135 



purple coloi .'ind llie while, woolly secretions which ap- 
pear on the upper surface of its body, and from \\hich 
it derives its name. It lives on the roots and on the tops 
of apple trees, usually on the smaller roots, and in the 
forks, and on the smaller branches of the tops. In winter 
it may entirely disappear from sight on the infested por- 
tions of the tree above the ground, but on the roots it does 
not perish, although its reproduction takes place more 




Woolly aphis of the apple. A, winged female; b, wing'- 
less female, and c, a wingless female bearing the peculiar 
"woolly" secretion characteristic of this insect. 

slowly. A winged brood appears late in the fall, but it has 
not been determined with certainty whether the females of 
this brood lay their eggs on the branches or on the soil. 
The infestation in the spring comes from the fact that the 
newly born young travel up the trunk to where they find 
suitable place for lodgment. They cause large smooth 
knots to form on both the root and branches w^herever 
a colony of them may form, and in cases of severe infes- 
tation may so seriously injure the roots as to cause them 
to rot off. 



136 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



When once established it is practically impossible to 
rid an orchard of this pest, and the best means is to guard 
against its getting a start in the orchard. One method is 
to have the apple trees worked on Northern Spy roots, as 
this variety seems to be quite immune from serious attacks. 
Nursery stock that has been puddled should have all of 
the mud washed off the roots and then be thoroughly ex- 
amined for signs of infestation. Fumigation with hydro- 
C3^anic acid gas will eliminate the insects which may be 




Characteristic galls produced on tree roots by the woolly 
aphis. 



present. Where present on the tops of trees, they can be 
disposed of with kerosene emulsion or black leaf sprays 
applied with sufficient force to wash off or penetrate the 
woolly covering. Black leaf is considered the most ef- 
fective when used in the proportion of one gallon to 65 
or 70. When trees are sprayed with lime-sulphur for the 
eggs of green aphis, the woolly aphis is kept in check. A 
band of sticky fly-paper or "Tanglefoot" wrapped around 
the base of the trees will prevent the migrating young 
from ascending the tree from the roots. 



Brown Mite 137 

Bark Louse. 

This is a minute insect which is more active in the 
spring, feeding on the tender shoots. Later in the season 
it secretes a scale under which it lives. It can be controll- 
ed with sprays of kerosene emulsion or lime-sulphur ap- 
plied while the trees are dormant. 

Bud Moth. 

This is a small insect, the larvae of which destroy the 
flower buds of apples, pears, plums, etc. It can be con- 
trolled with arsenical sprays applied when the buds are be- 
ginning to open and again ten days later. 

Apple Magot or Railroad Worm 

Troublesome in some places where it spoils or destroys 
apples by tunneling through the apples, causing the fruit 
to fall. Destruction of the infested fruit, together with 
keeping the orchard in thoroughly sanitary condition are 
the best means of eliminating this pest. 

Brown Mite 

In some sections of the West this insect has caused 
considerable trouble to the foliage of all kinds of fruit 
trees, causing the trees to take on the appearance of being 
in need of water. The mites feed on the leaves, but de- 
posit their eggs on the branches and limbs. When very 
abundant they give a reddish color to the bark, quite no- 
ticeable in the winter. The eggs are deposited in late sum- 
mer and do not hatch until after growth has begun in the 
spring. Weldon of the Colorado Experiment Station re- 
ports that this insect can be most effectively controlled 
with sulphur used in water as a spray. Flowers of sulphur, 
one pound to three gallons of water and enough soap so 
that the sulphur will mix freely with the water, is perfectly 
effective as a sumnier spray. Tobacco preparations will kill 
the mites, but not the eggs, and are effective only when 
repeated applications are made. Oil sprays seem to pene- 



138 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

trate the eggs and destroy them better than the tobacco 
extracts, but are unsafe to use with water strongly im- 
pregnated with alkaH. 

Brown Tail Moth 

This insect is found at the present time only in the 
region of the New England states, but at the rate it is 
spreading it may easily occupy the entire country in a 
short length of time. The adults, moths, of this insect 
expand 1^4 to IH inches and are white except on the abdo- 
men, which is brownish and tipped with a tuft of brown 
hairs. This tuft is small and dark in the male, but in the 
female is large and of a golden brown color, and on ac- 
count of its prominence has won for the insect its name. 
They may be found on the wing in July. Both sexes are 
strong flyers and are attracted by artificial lights. 

Eggs are laid in August on the leaves at the end of a 
sho<5t, and are covered with a few hairs from the body of 
the female. The young larvae appear in the course of a 
few days- and feed on the leaves, spinning a web as they 
feed. In the winter this web is thickened and the colony 
passes the winter in the nest. These nests are very con- 
spicuous, as they are so very different from any other win- 
tering places for a colony of insects. Early in the spring 
they emerge from the nest and feed on the young leaves 
of the trees, and when the insects are numerous they will 
completely strip the foliage in a short time. When full 
grown they a*re about IK' inches long, of a dark brown 
color with a sprinkling of orange, with the body cover.ed 
with long fine reddish brown hairs and a row of conspicu- 
ous white hairs along each side of the body. There is a 
conspicuous red tubercle on the top of the sixth and sev- 
enth abdominal segments. 

The unpleasant and dangerous character of these in- 
sects lays not alnne in the harm they do to trees by eating 
the foliage, but also to the discomfort they cause to man 
when coming in contact with the hairs which cover the 
bodies of these caterpillars. These hairs are brittle, very 



Codling Moth 139 

sharp pointed and barbed, so that they enter the skin easily 
where they set up a painful irritation. 

On account of its leaf eating habit it can be controlled 
with any of the arsenical sprays which are applied as soon 
after the leaves open in spring as possible. As many of 
the over-winter nests as can be collected should be burned. 
Clearing out thickets of plants that are infested and put- 
ting old, neglected orchards in sanitary condition will keep 
the pest in control. 

Canker Worm 

These worms appear early in the summer in great num- 
bers and are quite commonly known as "loopers'' or 
"measuring worms." They are voracious feeders, and will 
(luickly strip the foliage from the infested trees. The 
female moths are wingless and late in the fall they climb 
up on the trunks and branches of the trees where the eggs 
r-re deposited. Spray with arsenate of lead as soon as the 
insects appear, and repeat if necessary. 

Cigar Case Bearer 

The caterpillars of this moth infest the leaves and in 
the spring may be on the buds and young fruits. The 
mature caterpillars are about one-fifth of an inch long and 
a reddish orange color. They build around themselves a 
cigar shaped case from the lower surface of the leaf fast- 
ened together with silk. These cases are started in the 
fall and are increased considerably in the spring as the 
insect develops into maturit3^ The adults emerge in mid- 
summer as a steel grey moth about one-half inch across 
the wings. It can be kept in check by applications of ar- 
senical sprays, although on badly infested trees two or 
three applications may be needed at intervals of three days 
to a week apart. 

Codling Moth 

This insect causes a greater annual loss to fruit grow- 
ers than any other single insect except San Jose scale and 



140 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



plum cvirculio. It docs this 1)ccaiise it is the insect which 
causes the worm in the apple. It can be very effectively 
controlled by spraying with lead arsenate or Paris green. 
During the past half dozen years this insect has received 
a great amount of attention from orchardists and ento- 
mologists and very effecient means for its control have 
been perfected. There are two broods of this worm in 
each season, and the eggs of the first brood are laid on the 
leaves or young fruit and the worm enters the apple 
through the calyx. Where this brood of worms can be 




Codling' moth: A, portion of an apple showing' tunnels 
made by the worm; b, calyx at which the worm entered; d, 
pupa; e, larva or worm; f and g', adults. 



controlled there will be but little trouble from the second 
brood. On account of this habit of entering at the cal^'x 
it is apparent that the calyx should be filled with the 
poison. The second brood appears about mid-summer and 
enters the apple through the side. It usually selects a 
place where two apples touch or where a leaf covers the 
side of a fruit. 



Curculio 141 

In the Western sections an attempt has been made, 
and with more or less success, to do this first spraying so 
effectually as to make subsequent spraying unnecessary. 
It must be done at a pressure of 150 to 200 pounds, with 
a coarse nozzle, the bordeaux type being preferred, and the 
spray applied just at the time the last petals are falling 
from the flowers. Better results can be had by making 
two other sprays at intervals of a month apart. The doors 
and windows of cellars or houses in which apples are 
stored over winter should be screened so as to keep the 
moths which may hatch out from the infested fruit from 
reaching the orchard. 

Clean cultivation and the removal of scales of bark on 
the trunks and large limbs of the trees will prevent the 
• worms from finding suitable places in which to pupate. 

Curculio 

There are three species of this insect which may do 
serious damage to the apple. These are the plum curculio, 
apple curculio and apple weevil! Of these the plum cur- 
culio causes the greater amount of damage. This insect 
is a beetle, the adult of which is about an eighth of an 
inch long, and which hibernates over winter in the rub- 
bish, weeds, under clods or other convenient places in the 
orchard. On the apple this insect causes serious damage 
by puncturing the developing fruits for the purpose of 
feeding and to deposit eggs. These punctures differ some- 
what from each other but either of them causes a dwarfing 
and stunting of that portion of the fruit, so that by the 
time the fruit reaches maturity it is very much misshapen. 

The egg puncture made by this beetle is quite easily 
seen on fruits that have been stung. The female makes a 
little pocket in the flesh of the apple, and into this she de- 
posits one egg. Then, beginning at the puncture thus 
made, she cuts a crescent shaped mark through the skin 
partly surrounding the puncture. These crescent shaped 
marks are very conspicuous on smooth skinned fruits such 
,''s the plum an.d apple, and in regions where the curculio 



142 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



abounds may be found usually in s^rc^t abundance in the 
early part of the summer. 

These eggs hatch in from three to seven days into a 
small grub that feeds on the flesh of the fruit. For some 
reason, at present unexplained, if the fruit which is at- 
tacked continues to grow and enlarge rapidly, the grub 
will work its way toward the core, but usually dies be- 




Plum curculio; enlarged in the upper figure and natural 
size in tlie lower. 



fore the larval stage is completed. If, however, the fruit 
falls to the ground, then the larva reaches maturity. 
When full grown they come out of the fruit and enter the 
ground, where they form a little cell a couple of inches 
beneath the surface in which they pupate. Towards the 
latter part of the summer, sometimes extending over quite 
a long period, adults emerge from their pupal cells and 



Borers 143 

feed on the leaves and maturing fruits, sometimes making 
quite large holes in the fruit where they make frequent 
visits to feed. With the coming of cold weather these 
adults hide under bits of rubbish or in the grass, where 
they find protection during their period of hibernation. 

This insect is one of the most difficult to combat of the 
many that attack fruit. This is so because of its feeding 
habits and general life history. One means which is quite 
often advised as a means of control is to jar the infested 
trees. The insects drop from the trees when disturbed, 
and may be caught on sheets and destroyed. 

Cultivation during mid-summer is a method of dispos- 
ing of large numbers, as when done while the larvae are in 
the pupal stage their pupal cells will be destroyed and the 
larvae killed by the exposure to the light and attacks of 
predaceous insects. 

Recent experiments have shown that spraying trees 
with arsenate of lead is a very effective means of con- 
trolling this insect. The methods used in combatting the 
codling moth are such as to keep the curculio in check, 
and it has been the universal experience that sprays applied 
at high pressure are much more efficient than those ap- 
plied as a mist at low pressure. Even when controlled in 
the most efficient manner now known it is. not possible to 
destroy as great a percentage of these insects as it is of 
codling moth. 

Apple Curculio 

The habits of this insect are quite similar to those of 
the plum curculio, and means of controlling the latter will 
prove quite as effective. 

Borers 

Flat headed and round headed borers are both found 

. in the trunks of apple trees, working under the bark and 

into the wood of the trees, usually near the ground. They 

cannot be controlled by spraying, although lime-sulphur 

solution at high pressure to the trunks will aid in reducing 



144 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



the damage. Various washes containing soap and carbolic 
acid have been advised to drive or keep the insects from 
the trees, but none have proved to be of much value. The 
best and safest treatment is to dig the borers out with a 
sharp knife, or to run a wire into the burrow until the in- 
sects are reached. 




Apple curculio, natural size In the small figure. 



Fall Web Worm 

This worm is the larva of a moth of pure white color» 
with an expanse of wings of about one and one-fourth 
inches. The worms attack a great number of different 
kinds of plants, usually in mid-summer. The full grown 
larvae are about an inch long, with varied markings. They 
arc thickly covered with hairs of various shades of yellow, 
being longer at the extremities of the body, and a dark 



Gypsy Moth 



145 



stripe extends along the back. They spin a web over the 
foliage and confine their .operations inside the web. As 
fast as all of the enclosed foliage is eaten the tent-like 
web is extended, so that it may become of very large size 
if the insects are left undisturbed. 

On account of its foliage eating habits it can be con- 
trolled by any of the arsenical sprays which may be ap- 
plied. Usually it does not trouble orchards which have 
been thoroughly sprayed with lead arsenate, as this spray 
sticks, and when applied for the codling moth the foliage 
will be so well poisoned that the web worm cannot exist. 




Flat headed apple tree borer: 
A, adult; b, pupa; c and d, larvae. 



Gypsy Moth 

This insect at the present time is confined to a terri- 
tory quite the same as the brown tail moth, but differs 
from that insect in that it passes the winter in the egg 
stage. The female does not fly, although provided with 
wings. She crawls Into any convenient hiding place, 
whether it be under a bit of rubbish, under a stone, old 
can, fence or fence rail, building or what-not, and deposits 
her eggs. These are deposited in July or August and are 
covered with the tan colored hairs from the body of the 



146 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

female. They do not hatch until the following May. The 
full grown larvae are dark in color and covered with dark 
hairs. The mature larvae have two rows of red spots and 
two rows of blue spots along the back with a yellowish 
but dim stripe between them. Thej^ usually reach their 
full size about the 1st of July, and then transform to pupae. 
These pupae are found in locations similar to the egg 
masses, but occur in the foliage of trees and shrubs as 
well. The male moth is brownish yellow in color, about 
an inch and a half across the wings. The female moth is 
nearly white, with a body so heavy as to prevent flight. 

The most effective means of controlling this insect is 
to destroy the egg masses. There is an abundance of time 
for this as the eggs laid in mid-summer do not hatch until 
late next spring, a period of possibly eight months. The 
egg masses can be destroyed when found by soaking them 
with creosote mixture applied with a small swab or paint 
brush. This material can be obtained from dealers in 
farm supplies. 

Scale Insects 

Oyster Shell Scale. This insect is much larger than the 
San Jose scale, and resembles an oyster shell in shape. On 
account of there being only one brood in a season, it is 
easily controlled. Spraying for the San Jose scale will also 
destroy this insect. It may be held in check by spraying 
about the second week in June, while the young are hatch- 
ing, with kerosene emulsion or self-boiled lime-sulphur. 
When numerous, growers should determine when the eggs 
are hatching by watching the trees carefully after the 
latter part of March, in order to apply the remedy before 
the young insects become protected by their hard scale 
covering. In general practice it is found best to prune off 
the badly infested branches during the fall or winter. 

Scurfy Scale. This insect is a n'ative of America found 
on the bark of the nati\ c cral) trees. The scales are some- 
what pear shaped in outline Avith a prominent nipple at the 
pointed end. Its color is grayish or whitish, and even 
when numerous, it docs not cause the trouble that can be 



Tent Caterpillar 147 

expected from San Jose scale. Treatment for Oyster Shell 
or San Jose will keep this scale in check. 

San Jose Scale. This is the most destructive scale in- 
sect that affects deciduous orchard trees. It lives on near- 
ly all kinds of woody plants, and when left alone is capa- 
ble of killing a tree in the course of a very few years. The 
scales are very small, seldom larger than the head of a 
pin, and with a conspicuous nipple in the center. Eggs are 
never deposited, but the females give birth to living 
3'oung, after reaching maturity at about five weeks of age. 
Each female is capable of producing about 400 offspring. 
The characteristic thing about San Jose scale is that it 
causes the bark to turn red, especially the inner bark and 
the shoots of some species of plants. Other kinds of scales 
will cause a reddish appearance, especially on the fruit, but 
when the reddish color of the inner bark is pronounced, 
and the scales are circular in outline, it may quite likely be 
San Jose. For certain identification it should be referred 
to an experiment station entomologist. 

The most effective remedy for this insect is spraying 
with full strength lime-sulphur solution during the dormant 
period, using either the commercial brands or home-made 
mixtures. Miscible oils are also effective, and when the 
commercial brands of these are used, the directions ac- 
companying them should be followed, as serious injury to 
the trees can come from using these in too strong solu- 
tions. During the summer an application of self-boiled 
lime-sulphur has proven itself to be very effective in de- 
stroying all of the young insects with which it comes in 
contact, and in coating the branches so as to make it diffi- 
cult for the young to find a place to settle. 

Other Scale Insects. There are a number of other scale 
insects which attack orchard trees and shrubs, some of 
which closely resemble the San Jose scale in appearance. 
All of them are less destructive than the San Jose, and are 
easily controlled when precautionary measures are taken 
such as for the control of San Jose scale. 

Tent Caterpillar. The eggs of this insect are depositecl 
in masses in rows around the smaller twigs in mid-summer, 



14.S The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

and do not hatch until the following spring. The cater- 
pillars feed on the lea\'es spinning a web as they go. This 
soon becomes of considerable size and makes an unsightly 
appearance on the trees. When full grown the caterpillars 
are about two inches long, somewhat hairy and havp a 
white streak running along the back. On their sides are yel- 
lowish markings and underneath they are quite black. The 
worms mature in about six weeks, and make cocoons in 
sheltered places, issuing as moths in about three weeks. 
The moths are about three-fourths of an inch long, with 
a spread of wings covering about one and three-fourths 
inches. It can be controlled by any of the usual arsenical 
sprays that are applied for insects, such as the codling 
moth. 

Insects That Attack the Pear 

Pear Leaf Blister Mite. This insect attacks both pear 
and apple, although usually more common on the pear, 
from which it gets its name. It appears on the leaves in 
the spring at about the time they reach their full size, and 
cause reddish blisters to appear on the under side of the 
leaves. 

The eggs are deposited under the outer scales of the 
buds and hatch as growth begins in the spring. The little 
mites burrow into the leaves, where they cause the char- 
acteristic swellings. These swellings in spring are reddish, 
in summer they turn green and by the latter part of sum- 
mer have become a dark brown. 

This insect is not at ail difficult to control, as any of 
the mixtures used for controlling scale will keep it in 
check. Lime-sulphur, kerosene emulsion and miscible oils 
have all been effective in preventing injury from this insect 
on both apples and pears. 

Pear Slug. Pear trees are attacked by this insect in the 
summier and again in the late summer or fall. It feeds on 
the upper surface of the leaves, leaving only the veins. 
Foliage thus eaten falls from the tree and leaves the trees 
bare. This insect during its early stages is a slimy slug. 



Black Peach Aphis 



149 



hut after its last moult the slimy covering is thrown off 
and the skin becomes a light orange color and clean and 
dry. It then goes into the ground, and emerges again in 
twelve or fifteen days as a fly. It spends the winter in the 
pupal stage just under the surface of the soil. Arsenical 
poisons, either dusted or sprayed on the foliage will con- 
trol it. Because of its slimy nature, even road dust thrown 
on it often results in extermination. 




The bag-worm: A, caterpillar removed from the bag; 
b. male chrysalis; c, wingless and legless female moth; d, 
winged male; e, bag cut open showing female chrysalis and 
eggs; f, caterpillar in the bag; g, cones made by the little 
caterpillars as they are beginning to spin their bags. 



Black Peach Aphis. These plant lice are shining black 
in color, one form having wings and the other possessing 
none. They feed upon the juices of the peach, cherry and 
plum trees, working upon the leaves, stem and roots. They 
can be controlled on the leaves and twigs by spraying with 
the tobacco preparations as for green aphis. If very nu- 
merous on roots, scrape the soil away and apply pulverized 
tobacco. 



150 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

Bagworm. These insects infest nearly all kinds of trees 
and shrubs, and will consume a large quantity of foliage 
during the summer, frequently defoliating the trees com- 
pletely. It is the larva of a moth, that over-winters in 
the egg stage within the old female bags. In the late 
spring the young hatch from the eggs and crawl out 
on the twigs to the nearest leaf, where they begin to feed 
and begin the work of spinning the bags for them- 
selves. This is a curious and interesting process. Into the 
construction of the bags the larvae add fragments of the 
foliage and leaf stems, securely fastened together with silk. 
It is easily controlled with arsenical sprays. 

Red Spiders. These are extremely small insects which 
work on the under surface of the leaves of many plants. 
They are common in greenhouses, and in the semi-arid sec- 
tions of the West they are becoming quite destructive to 
orchard and ornamental trees and shrubs. When present 
they cause the leaves to become yellowish in spots, and 
upon examination the under siirfaces will be found covered 
with an extremely fine web. The adults will appear as 
very small red or brownish specks crawling under the web, 
and their eggs as minute glistening beads attached to the 
leaf in the meshes of the web. The adults are just large 
enough to be seen with the naked eye. 

In the greenhouse they can be kept in control by daily 
syringing with cold water. In the field such means are 
impracticable, but the Colorado experiment station reports 
that they were able to keep red spiders controlled by 
spraying their plants with sulphur and soapy water as 
used for the brown mite. 

Strawberry Insects 

Leaf Roller. This insect appears early in the spring as 
a small brown moth, measuring about half an inch across 
the wings. It deposits its eggs on the leaves of the straw- 
berry. The larvae are greenish brown, and when full 
grown, nearly half an inch in length, but rather slender. 
They mature in June, after having spun a web which 



Root Louse 151 

causes the familiar rolling upward of the leaflets. The 
soft tissue of the leaf is eaten and what remains turns 
reddish brown, giving the plant a burned appearance. 
There are two broods, and the winter is passed in the pupal 
condition. Spray the plants in August with an arsenical 
spray at the time the second brood appears. On account 
of the first brood of the insects pupating in the rolled 
leaves, the foliage may be mowed off and burned, thereby 
practically exterminating them from the plantation. 

Sawfly; Slug. The adult of this insect appears in spring 
and deposits its eggs in the tissues of the stem or leaf. The 
larvae hatch in a short time and gnaw holes in the leaf, 
developing in the course of five or six weeks into pale 
green worms about three-fourths of an inch long. The 
larvae burrow slightly beneath the surface to pupate, 
emerging later as flies. There are two broods in the 
Southern states and one in the Xorth. Spray the foliage 
with lead arsenate before the plants bloom, and again after 
the fruit has been harvested, if necessary. 

Strawberry Weevil. This beetle deposits its eggs in 
the developing flower bud of a pollen-producing straw- 
berry. The insect punctures a bud and turns and deposits 
its eggs into the puncture, then shoves it down into the 
bud with its beak. It then passes down the stem of the 
developing flower, where it punctures the stem, shuttmg 
off the supply of sap, and the bud shrivels and drops to the 
ground. There the larva develops to maturity and emerges 
as an adult beetle in about a month from the time the eg^ 
was deposited. 

Spraying with arsenicals is recommended, although, 
from the feeding habits of the beetle it will hardly get 
enough poison to destroy it. Mulch the field with straw 
and burn it as soon as the fruit is off. The least amount of 
damage will come by planting, pistillate varieties, setting 
four rows pistillate with oine row of some variety of stam- 
inr.te berry, capable of producing an abundance of pollen. 
The weevil attacks only the staminate flowers, and lives on 
the pollen cells. 

Root Louse. The life of this aphis is similar in general 



152 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book , 

t ) other plant lice. They appear first on the foliage and 
tender young leaves in the crown of th-e plant, and col- 
onies of them may even be found on the roots of the 
strawberry, where they have been carried by a species of 
ant, which places them m specially prepared galleries. 

The most effective remed}'-, perhaps, is to plant the ber- 
ries in new ground every third year. Fumigation of the 
plants before planting will free them of any living insects, 
and spraying with black leaf when the lice are first noticed 
in the spring will keep them well in check. 

Crown Borer. This is a white grub which works in the 
crown of the plants along in mid-summer. This grub is 
about one-fifth of an inch long, and develops into a cur- 
culio or weevil. To control this insect by spraying is 
rather difficult on account of its habits. The best means 
of control is to burn over the fields immediately after the 
fruit has been picked. Any plants remaining which are in- 
fested should be dug up and burned. 

Grape Insects 

Leaf Folder. This is the larva of a moth having wings 
of black, bordered with white, and with white spots on the 
upper sides. The adult lays its eggs on the upper side of 
the leaves. As soon as hatched the larvae begin to feed on 
the tissue of the upper side of the leaves, leaving only 
the hard veins and skin of the lower side. As it feeds it 
spins a web over itself in such a manner as to bring the 
sides of the leaf together, forming a fold in the leaf. It 
pupates within the folded leaf. Because of its leaf-eat- 
ing habit it can be controlled with any of the usual arsen- 
ical sprays. 

Flea Beetle. This is a small steel-blue beetle about an 
eighth of an inch long, which is readily disturbed on the 
vines, and has the habit of dropping to the ground. It 
passes the winter in the adult condition, and in early 
spring attacks the opening buds and tender young leaves. 
Soon after the leaves appear the female commences laying 
eggs, which are orange colored, on the under side of the 



Leaf Hopper 153 

leaves. These quickly hatch and the larvae feed on the 
tissues of the leaves, puncturing them full of holes. There 
is a second brood of the beetles which appears about the 
middle of July. Spraying with arsenical materials will de- 
stroy this troublesome little pest. 

Rose Chafer. This is a long-legged, awkward-looking 
beetle which attacks a great many different kinds of plants 
during the summer. It responds very slowly to any poisons, 
so that in small areas hand picking of the insects is prob- 
ably the best treatment. In commercial plantations spray- 
ing with arsenate of lead will keep the insect under con- 
trol. 

Berry Worm. There are two kinds of insects which 
cause worms in the berries of grapes. One of these is the 
larva of a moth. This worm is about half an inch long, 
of a bluish black color, that spins a web and lets itself to 
the ground. The other is the grub of the curculio. Some 
seasons either or both of these insects may be very numer- 
ous, while in others they will be of no consequence. Thor- 
ough spraying with arsenate of lead will give quite effec- 
tive control of both insects, although the curculio can be 
more effectively controlled if the vineyard is kept in clean 
cultivation, and the soil stirred quite frequently during the 
middle and latter portions of the summer. This will bring 
to the surface of the soil the pupal cells of the insect, which 
will perish upon exposure to the light. Spraying with 
arsenate after the fruit sets and again when the berries are 
about half grown will help in controlling these insects. 

Leaf Hopper. This is a very small, inconspicuous in- 
sect that jumps from the leaves uf the vine when disturbed. 
It comes in great swarms and does great damage to the 
vines by sucking the juice of the foliage from the under 
side. Thorough spraying with kerosene emulsion at the 
rate of one to ten, is the most effective means of con- 
trolling it. In applying the spray it needs to be done with 
rj'-i.jd pressure and through a fine r\o'/.'/\e so as to fill the 
air with a mist. Those inss: s wliioh a^e not hit while on 
the vine will get more or less upon themselves as they hop 
through the mist, and be destroyed. 



l''>4 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

Grape-Cane Gall Maker. This is a little hectic of the 
cnrcuiit) family, which is very closely related to the grapc- 
caiie girdler, except that the gall maker is of dark brown 
color and the girdler is shining black. Thus far its in- 
juries have not been of great seriousness, although present 
to a greater or less extent over quite a large area of the 
eastern portion of the United States. The female makes 
a series of holes in the grape canes, usually beyond 
the terminal cluster of fruit, in which she deposits her eggs. 
These hatch into a small larva which feeds on the tissue 
of the cane and causes the formation of a gall of consid- 
erable size. It can be controlled by removing these canes 
having galls, and arsenical sprays may keep the insects 
under control. 

Grape-Cane Girdler. This insect, instead of making a 
line of holes up and down the canes, makes a ring of holes, 
in only one, of which an egg is deposited. Then above this 
place where the egg is deposited she girdles the cane so 
that it breaks off. The larva lives in the stub. Removing 
the affected canes and spraying with arsenical sprays, to- 
gether with keeping the vineyard in clean cultivation will 
keep this insect controlled. 

Raspberry Cane Borer. This is the larva of a small 
black beetle, which makes two rows of holes about an inch 
apart near the tips of the canes in June, and deposits an 
egg just above the lower girdle. The larva attains a length 
of nearly an inch and bores down into the cane, causing it 
to wilt. Cut off the wilted canes below the lower girdle and 
burn them. 

Vegetable Insects - 

Asparagus Beetle. There are two kinds of beetles known 

by this name, one of them is blue in color, and the other 
a dark red, with twelve black spots on its wing covers. 
Both of them attack asparagus as it is starting into growth 
and eat holes in the young tips, also eating the foliage 
and seed capsules. Allow a few hills to remain uncut, and 
keep them sprayed with arsenical poisons. These hills will 



Apples 155 

serve as trap plants, drawing the insects away from the 
ones that are to be used for cutting. 

Bean Weevil. This insect deposits its eggs on the 
young pods and the larvae bore into the developing seeds, 
where they do not reach maturity until fall. Then the}^ 
emerge if the season is warm, otherwise remaining in the 
seed until spring. When present the beans should be 
fumigated immediately after harvest, using one ounce of 
carbon bisulphide for every hundred pounds of beans, and 
leaving the bin closed for forty-eight hours. 

Fungous Diseases 

Apples 

Bitter Rot. The conditions most favorable to the de- 
velopment of this disease are hot weather, accompanied by 
frequent rains and heavy dews at the period when the fruit 
is approaching maturity. Dry weather at that time will 
not cause a serious outbreak of the disease. 

This is the most destructive fungous disease of the 
apple, causing a greater actual loss than does apple scab. 
But its virulence varies greatly with local conditions, and 
iv may not cause serious trouble every year. It occurs 
throughout the entire eastern part of the United States. 
Tt appears on the fruit, causing it to rot, and is also found 
on the branches in the form of cankers. On the fruit it 
first appears as a small brown speck at about the time the 
fruit is beginning, to ripen. As soon as this spot attains a 
size slightly smaller than a dime it becomes sunken in the 
middle and produces numerous small pustules in concentric 
lings, giving rise to the summer spores. The tissue of the 
fruit near the rotting areas is decidedly bitter, from which 
fact this fungus gets its name. The rotting areas continue 
tc increase in size until the entire fruit decays. Many of 
these decayed fruits do not drop from the trees, but re- 
n:ain hanging to the branches throughout the winter. In 
the spring these "mummied" fruits, as they are called, give 



156 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

rise to a new crop of spores that infect the new crop of 
fruit. 

On the branches this fungus causes the formation of 
cankers, or areas of dead bark. The fungus is believed to 
live in these cankered areas for two years, giving rise to a 
crop of spores which falls onto the fruit, causing the char- 
acteristic black, decaying areas. 

As a means of preventing damage from bitter rot, one 
of the first preventive measures should be a thorough ex- 
amination of the trees v/hile in a dormant condition, and 
removing all of the branches and limbs which show signs 
of infestation. All of the mun^mied fruit which remains 
en the branches should be removed and burned. Then the 
trees should be given a thorough spraying with bordeaux 
mixture. As many as six applications of this mixture will 
be needed, beginning in the spring, and applying the spray 
at intervals of two or three weeks until July, and even after 
that date if bitter rot should appear. Experiments carried 
on by the Illinois Experiment Station go to show that the 
earl}"- sprayings are more effective in controlling this dis- 
ease than if the spraying is not done until after the disease 
appears. The work of spraying should be done thoroughly, 
so as to coat every fruit and leaf. 

Blotch. This disease occurs through the southern and 
eastern part of the United States where it causes serious 
damage to the fruit on several different varieties of apples. 
On the fruits these blotches appear as dark colored, star- 
shaped areas, often being so numerous on an apple as to 
cover the entire fruit. It attacks only the skin of the 
fruit, so that the continued growth of the underlying tissue 
frequently causes the fruit to crack. The fungus does not 
rot the fruit as in the case of bitter rot, but mars the ap- 
pearance so as to make it unsalable. 

The fungus also attacks the twigs and branches on 
which it causes i\\^ formation of small and rather incon- 
spicuous cankers. On the rapidly growing shoots and 
watersprouts these cankers have the same general appear- 
ance as on the fruit. The fungus lives in the cankers for 



Brown Spot, Baldwin Fruit Spot 157 

a number of years. On the leaves it appears as minute 
specks, scarcely one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter, 
of irregular shape, and usually yellowish or whitish, with 
one or more smail black specks in the center. When very 
numerous, they may cause the foliage to fall. 

To control this fungus make five or six applications of 
bordeaux mixture, as for bitter rot. 




Apple blotch on a Maiden Blush apple, natural size. 

Brown Spot, Baldwin Fruit Spot. This disease is caused 
b\' a fungus which finds entrance into the apple during 
mid-summer, and causes the fruit to deepen in color wher- 
ever the fungus may have found entrance. At the time the 
fruit is ripening it causes small brownish areas to form, 
which become somewhat sunken, and the flesh to become 
dry, brown and quite bitterish to the taste. It can be con- 
trolled by spraying with bordeaux mixture or even weaker 
fungicides. 



158 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

Twig Blight. (See under Pear.) 

Black Rot. This is a fungus causing the deca^^ of ap- 
ples, quinces and pears, and has become well known, al- 
though it is not a serious disease. Its most objectionable 
and serious character is that it causes large cankers to 
form on the limbs of the affected trees. The fruits that 
are attacked rot quickly, but do not show the shrinking of 
the tissues as in the case of bitter rot. After the rotting 
has become quite well advanced the diseased area will be- 
come quite spotted with small black specks from which 
the spores issue. It occurs most commonly on neglected 
and fallen fruit, and upon fruit in the storage cellar. The 
cankers appear as deadened areas of the bark, some- 
what shrunken and producing many little pustules from 
which the spores arise. Removal of the cankers and thor- 
ough spraying with bordeaux mixture gives the most com- 
plete satisfaction, although preventive measures have not 
been well worked out. Clean orchards are affected the 
least. 

Crown Gall. This disease is due to an organism that 
attacks a number of different kinds of plants, mostly of 
the family Rosaceae, causing large swellings to form on 
the roots or at the crown of the plant. It is exceedingly 
troublesome in nurseries, and appears as large soft galls, 
and may also be present as a mass of fine hairy roots. 
In the Western states it is very troublesome as the 
organism seems to find congenial conditions for its devel- 
opment and distribution. The galls increase in size rapidly 
and usually last for only one season, after which they 
decay, only to reappear again the next season. Trees are 
frequently so badly affected as to either die or be of little 
value. 

No means is known of preventing the spread of the 
disease or of destroying it after it has once entered a tree. 
Careful inspection of nursery stock and burning all of the 
infested trees is all that can be suggested at the present 
time. 

Fly Speck, Sooty Blotch. These diseases ordinarily 
appear on the fruit from unsprayed trees, in low ground, 



Rust 



159 



and upon ihc lower limbs of trees in dryer locations. Tt is 
purely a skin disease and causes no injury aside from dis- 
figuring the appearance of the fruit. Can be easily con- 
trolled with bordeaux mixture or any of the ordinary 
fungicides. 

Mildew. The powdery mildew often occurs on the 
young shoots of nursery stock, making a dense felt-like, 
growth over the leaves and twigs. It can be controlled 
with any of the usual fungicides. 




Apple blossoms. On the left, just right for the first ap- 
plication of spray to control scab and codling moth. Cluster 
on the right is too late for the codling moth. 



Rust. The bright orange colored patches of rust that 
are to be found on the leaves and fruit of apples, pear and 
quince, as well as upon the wild thorn and crab trees, are 
caused by the same fungus which makes the ''cedar ap- 
ples" on cedar trees. It spends a part of its existence on 
the apple trees and the other part on the cedar, so that 
the most effective means of controlling this fungus is to 



160 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



gel rid of the cedar trees. Spraying with bordeaux mix- 
ture or self-boiled lime-sulphur aids in checking the dis- 
ease, but does not give perfect control. 

Root Rot. This trouble is of common occurrence in 
several parts of the country. In the Middle West it oc- 
curs more frequently on trees which have been planted on 
land newly cleared from oak timber. In such cases it 
seems to be caused by a fungus which is found on the oak. 
Before planting an orchard on newly cleaned land, it is 
best to wait for a few years and let the land become freed 
of the fungus by natural agencies. 




Apple affected by scab. 



In the Western states a condition resulting in the death 
of the roots and portions of the bark of the trunk has been 
laid to poisoning from excessive use of arsenical sprays. 
This belief is doubted on good authority, however, as in 
some of the Western sections, in orchards which have 
never been sprayed, and in soils entirely free from arsenic, 
the same trouble is said to exist. 

Scab. Apple scab is common to all orchards, except in 
some portions of the scmi-and sections of the West. It 
attacks the fruit and leaves, on which it causes large black 



Scab 



161 



velvety patches. It not only injures the appearance of the 
fruit, but by its attacks on the foliage, it may prevent the 
formation of a crop of fruit. 




Apple leaves covered with the fungus that causes scab. 



It is most serious when the weather is cold and wet 
early in the season. Because of this the dropping of 
apples, which is often attributed to improper pollination 

<6) 



162 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

during such season, is directly due to the ravages of scab 
on the young fruits. x\ll varieties of apples are attacked by 
scab, but some varieties more so than others. Thorough 
spraying with bordeaux mixture just before the buds open 
and again after the petals fall, followed by a third appli- 
cation two or three weeks later, will keep it under perfect 
control. Recent experiments lead to the opinion that lime- 
sulphur and arsenate of lead applied as for the codling 
moth will give immunity from this disease. 

Cherry 

Black Knot. This disease occurs on the cherry, apricot, 
plum and prune, causing the formation of large black galls 
or knots on the limbs and branches. These are frequently 
infested with insects which burrow within the galls. Re- 
moval of the galls by cutting out diseased limbs and spray- 
ing with any standard fungicide before growth begins m 
spring will eliminate the disease. 

Leaf Spot. This disease attacks the cherry and plum 
upon the foliage of which it causes the formation of small 
brown spots, the dead centers of which fall out, causing a 
*'shot-hole" appearance. When very prevalent it will cause 
defoliation of the trees. Apply bordeaux mixture before 
the buds open and keep the orchard clean. 

Powdery Mildew. This fungus is found on the sprouts 
and young shoots of the cherry, although in favorable 
seasons it may attack all of the foliage and cause defoli- 
ation. It can be controlled by sprajnng with fungicides. 

Currants 

Anthracnose. This fungus also occurs on gooseberries, 
causing the formation of small brown spots on the leaves 
which turn yellow and drop when seriously attacked. On 
the stems the fungus makes small circular areas. Cut- 
ting out the affected canes and spraying with bordeaux 
m.ixture before the buds open will control the disease. 

Cane Blight. This fungus causes serious trouble in 
some sections by killing the canes. Upon the dead canes 



Orange Rust 163 

it will appear as a bright pink mass a short time after the 
cane dies. Spraying will help to keep the plantation in 
a sanitary condition, but plants which have been attacked 
seldom recover and should be dug up and burned. 

Dropsy. This disease is possibly due to a physiological 
trouble. It causes a considerable enlargement of the 
stem. Cutting out the affected canes is most effective. 



Blackberries and Raspberries 

Anthracnose. This fungus causes small purplish spots 
to form on the canes. Later these spots become gray and 
sunken, giving somewhat the "bird's eye" effect. The 
stems and leaves may also become affected and result in 
severe injury to the entire plant. Control measures have 
not proven as satisfactory with this disease as with 
many others. Keeping the plantation in a thoroughly sani- 
tary condition by cultivating and spraying, and removing 
the affected canes as fast as they show are about the best 
means of control. 

Cane Blight. In the eastern part of the country this 
disease has caused considerable loss to small fruit grow- 
ers. It is a wilt disease attacking the young canes and 
causing the affected portions to wilt and die. Planting 
healthy vines and removing the diseased portions when 
they appear are best means of control. 

Crown Gall. (See Apple.) 

Orange Rust. Among raspberries and blackberries 
there is a noticeable difference in different varieties in re- 
sisting this disease. Kittitinny blackberry is about the most 
susceptible, although some varieties of dewberries are eas- 
ily affected. The fungus causing this disease appears on 
the foliage, the under surface of which turns a bright 
orange color, and the skin breaks open, liberating the 
brightly colored spores. Affected canes are usually much 
more spindling than those which are healthy. Spraying 
has not proved to be of much service in controlling this 
disease. Keeping the plantation clean and removing the 



164 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

affected plants as they appear, and before they begin to 
shed their spores, is, perhaps, the best means of fighting 
the disease. 

Grape 

Anthracnose. Anthracnose or bird's eye disease of the 
grape is well distributed throughout the country. The 
fungus causing it may be found on the canes, leaves and 
fruit, although by far more commonly on the fruit. It 
causes the formation of grayish spots which are bordered 
with a purplish or reddish ring. It is difficult to control, 
although those vineyards which are thoroughly sprayed 
for black rot contain but little of the anthracnose. 

Black Rot. The berries are rrkost severely affected by 
this fungus, although the leaves are first attacked. On the 
berries a circular black spot first appears, gradually en- 
larging, and in the center of which small black pustules 
appear, from which the spores of the fungus are liberated 
It usual!3' attacks the berries at about the time they art 
two-thirds grown and will destroy the entire crop before 
ripening time unless preventive measures are taken. 

The most effective treatment consists in spraying the 
vines with bordeaux mixture at the time the buds are be- 
ginning to open, and -then another application immediately 
after the new shoots appear, but before the flowers open. 
After blooming, the vines should have an application of 
bordeaux every two weeks until five or six applications 
have been made. If the disease appears at about the time 
the fruit is beginning to ripen, ammoniacal copper carbon- 
ate will be a better spray to use, as it will not soil the 
appearance of the fruit. 

Dov(^ny Mildew. This disease is widely spread through- 
out all of the grape producing sections of America and 
Europe. The first indication of the disease is the forma- 
tion of yellowish spots of irregular shape and size on the 
upper surface of the leaf. On the under surface these spots 
will be covered with a white downy growth on which the 
spores of the fungus are produced. The fungus attacks 



Peach Blight 165 

the berries when young, causing a mouldy growth to cover 
the entire fruit and even an entire bunch of fruit. 

This fungus is of distinct historic importance, since it 
was the disease which was introduced into Europe and 
which later led to the discovery of bordeaux mixture. 
This spray, applied before the buds open, and again at 
intervals of two weeks until the flowers open, then another 
application immediately after the flowers fall, will hold 
the disease under control. 

Powdery Mildew. In moist seasons, and in low ground, 
this fungus frequently causes trouble by its attacks upon 
the foliage, and to a small extent the berries of the grape. 
It appears as a powder\% mouldy growth on both the upper 
and under surface of the leaves, causing them to arch more 
or less when the disease is very bad. It can be controlled 
by any of the usual spraying operations. 

Peach Diseases 

Peach Blight 

This disease occurs at the present time in the Western 
states, where it has become quite common from Colorado 
westward to the Pacific coast. 

The disease makes its first appearance in the fall and 
during the winter, in v/hich the buds are killed and growth 
consequently prevented for the next spring. It attacks the 
fruit early in the season, on which it produces small cir- 
cular spots, some of which may be covered with a drop 
of gum. On the twigs it produces spots, which may be 
more or less gummy, and some of which may encircle the 
twig, causing it to die. 

It attacks both the peach and the apricot, and causes a 
greater loss to the Western fruit men than any other one 
fungous disease. It can be very easily controlled with 
either bordeaux mixture or lime-sulphur. Fall applications; 
are most effective and should be made as soon after the 
late fruit is gathered as possible. If San Jose scale it pres- 



166 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



ent, lime-sulphur — 1 to 10 or 12 — should be used, otherwise 
bordeaux will be best. A second application should be 
made in the spring at about the first of May and a third 
application in about three weeks, and if the disease is 
especially troublesome, or if the weather should be rainy, 
a fourth spraying should be made in about ten days after 
the third. 




Brown rot, altogether too familiar to most peach growers. 



Brown Rot 

This disease is capable of the most extensive damage 
to the peach crop in the states east of the Rocky Moun- 
tains, since it attacks the fruit at ripening time, causing 
it to rot within a very few hours. It attacks all kinds of 
stone fruits, but causes the greatest amount of loss to 
peaches and plums. The disease makes itself evident by 
the small dark brown decayed spots, which rapidly enlarge 
and produce on its surface small tufts of brown spores. 
It may attack the flowers, twigs and leaves, but usually 
confines its operations to the fruit. 



Peach Scab 167 

The spread of the disease is materially assisted by the 
plum curculio, which punctures the skin of the fruit and 
admits the fungus spores. Until recently this disease has 
been controlled only with difficulty, but investigations 
of the past three years demonstrate that by spraying with 
self-boiled lime-sulphur containing 2 pounds of lead arsen- 
ate to 50 gallons of the mixture, the disease can be held 
well in check. This spray should be applied about three 
times, first application at just about the time the "shucks'* 
are falling from the newly set fruit; two other applications 
may be needed at intervals of about two weeks. It is im- 
portant that the arsenate of lead be added, as it holds the 
curculio in check and seems also to add to the fungicidal 
value of the lime-sulphur. 

Frosty Mildew 

This disease causes a mouldy appearance on the under 
surface of the foliage of the peach. It is most common in 
the Atlantic Coast States, but is not a serious trouble and 
can be controlled by early spraying. 

Leaf Curl 

Leaf curl is a disease which is more or less common in 
all sections where peaches are grown. It is most trouble- 
some in spring when the weather is cold and damp. It is 
due to a fungus which causes the leaves to curl and become 
badl}' deformed, finally dropping from the tree. The twigs 
and even the flowers may be attacked. Thorough spraying 
with bordeaux mixture in late winter or early spring, just 
before growth begins, will keep this disease in perfect 
control. 

Peach Scab 

This disease is widespread throughout the peach pro- 
ducing areas of the eastern portion of the country, where 
it occurs to a damaging extent on practically all varieties 
of peaches, and particularly those with white flesh. Its 
commonest appearance is a black velvety patch on one 
side of the peach, or it may occur in many small circular 



168 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



patches, in which condition it is often known as "freckles." 
When very severe it will cause the fruit to be somewhat 
dwarfed in size, and make the flesh crack open, thereby 
exposing it to attacks of black rot. 

It usually occurs along in the same orchards with 
brown rot, and has always been a troublesome disease to 
control, although it is well known now that it can be kept in 
perfect control by spraying during the summer season with 
self-boiled lime-sulphur. This material should be made and 
applied in the same manner as for the control of brown roi. 
In orchards that are sprayed for brown rot there will be but 
little trouble from scab. 




A well developed case of peach scab. The skin cracked 
open, exposing the flesh to infection of brown rot. 



Pear 

Blight 

This disease is very widespread in the United States, 
occurring in every pear growing section, and has practical- 



Blight 169 



ly driven the commercial production of pears out of a num- 
ber of localities. It attacks not only the pear, but also the 
apple, quince, wild crabs and thorns, and has even been 




Branch of pear infected with blig-ht through the flower 
clusters. 



170 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



known 1o attack the plum. It is known by a variety of 
names, such as twig blight, fire blight, blossom blight, etc. 
It is a bacterial disease, the organisms working entirely 
within the host, where it cannot be reached by any spray 
or wash that may be applied. 




Body of pear tree infected with blig-ht through the care- 
less removal of a limb. Pruning tools should be sterilized, 
likewise the wounds, and then covered with paint, Avax or 
tanglefoot. 



The disease usually appears on trees at just the time 
they are in bloom, as the organisms causing the disease 
are carried from tree to tree by the bees and other insects 
which visit the flowers. They may also be transported by 
iiumerous kinds of leaf feeding insects and thus be carried 
to the twigs of many trees which are not in bloom. When 



Plum Pockets 171 

the leaves and blossoms are attacked by this blight they 
are turned a very dark or even black color very quickly. 
Where the disease has advanced far enough as to attack 
the limbs or even the trunks of the trees, it causes a water 
soaked appearance of the wood and bark, followed by 
shrinking and cracking of the bark from which drops of a 
sticky substance may exude. These drops are masses of 
the germs and may be carried by insects to other trees and 
the disease extended. 

For many years after the cause of this trouble was 
known it was believed that it was impossible to stop it 
after it had once gained entrance to the tree. However, 
it has been found out that the disease can be kept in per- 
fect control by pruning. It is highly important that the 
orchard be gone over several times during the winter and 
every twig and branch that shows signs of this disease be 
carefully cut out, the cut being made fully a foot, or in 
some instances more below the lowest sign of the disease. 
The wounds should then be sterilized with corrosive subli- 
mate, and the tools also sterilized with the same fluid before 
touching them to any other branch. The germs can be 
carried on the pruning tools, and unless thorough sterili- 
zation is practiced, the pruning may result in more damage 
than good. The orchard should be gone over several times 
during the winter and a thorough search made for any 
sign of this disease. 

Summer pruning may also be done to advantage, but 
will require even more care about sterilization of the 
wounds and tools, as the germs are- then in their most 
active and virulent condition. 

Plum Pockets 

This fungus bears a very close relation to -that causing 
leaf curl. It attacks the fruit of the domestic plums, caus- 
ing abnormal deformities of the fruit, making them really 
become large bladder-like structures, in which the 
stcwne is rarely developed. It has been claimed that the 
fungus lives from year to year in the twigs of the trees, 
so that when once affected it cannot be very easily gotten 
rid of. However, this fact has not been entirely proven. 



172 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



as trees which are well sprayed with fungicides, as for 
brown rot or black knot, are not attacked by the pocket 
fungus, or if they are, to only a slight and insignificant 
extent. 

Strawberries 
Strawberry Leaf Spot 

This disease appears upon the leaves of the strawberry 
at about the time of flowering. At first these spots are 
purplish, later becoming greyish at the center, while the 
margins are red, and if the leaf is much affected the entire 




Characteristic appearance of strawberry leaf spot. 

leaf may become reddened. Control of this disease can 
be had by spraying the plants before flowering with bor- 
deaux, and if the disease is troublesome later in the season 
it may be advisable to cut off the leaves and burn them. 



Principles of Pruning 173 



CHAPTER VII 



Principles of Pruning 

Pruning is one of the most interesting and fascinating 
operations connected with horticultural work. A plant is 
a plastic, responding, changing organism which is affected 
by everything we do to it. We cannot remove a single 
branch without affecting the parts which remain. The 
shortening of any limb modifies to a greater or less extent 
the character which will be assumed by the parts which 
remain. A plant is capable of being shaped or moulded 
by pruning, and he who prunes will surely get results. 
However, as to whether these results are what are to be 
most desired will have to be learned by experience. One 
must prune and watch the results over a series of years 
to learn just what effects any particular treatment will 
give, as the plant grows. 

Pruning cannot be learned from books. It must be 
learned by studying the habits of plants and the results of 
pruning. Books on pruning can, however, give one ideas 
which will enable one more readily to learn how to prune 
when he comes to do the work. The reading will be help- 
ful only as it guides the operations in the field, and the 
horticulturist hifnself must learn directly from the plants 
themselves. 

It is an easy matter to learn how to prune where one 
has the plants to work upon, and the time to watch their 
responses to the operations made upon them; but it is a 
difficult matter to tell others how to prune. No two plants 



174 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

are alike. No two branches are alike. No definite rules 
can be formulated which will apply to every kind of plant 
in ever}'- locality in which it may be growing. It is a com- 
paratively simple matter to prescribe formulae for the 
spraying of plants to govern the destruction of insects and 
control the damages done by fungi. With pruning, how- 
ever, only systems can be defined which are broad enough 
to permit of wide modification according to the ideal and 
desire of the pruner and the habit and character of the 
plant. This means that the operation must be done in a 
rational, common sense way, rather than by following pre- 
scribed rules. 

Since rules cannot be formulated for the pruning of 
plants, there are certain systems which can be designed 
that will enable the pruner to so modify his plants that they 
will all conform to certain well defined types. In grape 
pruning, for example, there are certain well defined types 
or systems in use, such as the spur system, the drooping 
system and the upright system, with several modifications 
or combinations of these. In ornamental plants there are 
natural forms and topiary forms which are made by train- 
ing the plants into formal or fantastic shapes. In Euro- 
pean countries fruit trees are trained into formal shapes, 
and they are a striking contrast to the shapes of pruning 
that are used in this country. Some of these differences 
are due primarily to a matter of taste, while others are 
employed to suit a certain definite purpose, or to adapt 
the plant to given surroundings or environment. 

In the United States there is a great amount of differ- 
ence in the style of pruning in the Atlantic coast states and 
in the Central and far Western states. In the Atlantic 
coast states the trees are given a high head, while in the 
Central and far Western states the head is placed closer 
to the ground. In the Eastern states the trees are trained 
with a more open head than in the Central or Western 
states. These styles are due mainly to an attempt to adapt 
the tree to the climatic conditions in which it is compelled 
to grow. In the rainy atmosphere of the coast region it is 
Ticcessary to prune the trees with a high open head so as 



Principles of Pruning 175 

to admit the sunlight and air, while in the brilliant sun- 
light and clear dry air of the West it is advisable to have 
the trees with a more dense head to prevent the tendency 
to sun-scald. 

While there is more or less of difference in the style 
or system of pruning used in different sections of the 
country, there are certain well defined principles which will 
apply to all plants in any climate, or under any system of 
pruning. Pruning will modify the vigor of plants, and in 
some ways will cause them to produce larger and better 
fruits. It will keep the plants within bounds and may 
chs.nge the habit from wood producing to fruit producing. 
Pruning allows the removal of superfluous parts and of in- 
jured branches or roots. Intelligent pruning will facilitate 
the operations of spraying, harvesting and cultivating the 
orchard, and will enable the operator to train the plant in 
the form most fitting with his ideal. 

In a plant growing normally there is a balance in the 
relation between the root and top, each supported and 
nourished by the other; and when either is mutilated the 
relation is upset and the balance disturbed. Heavy prun- 
ing of the top in the dormant season tends to increase the 
amount of wood growth that will be made the following 
season. In a contrary way, heavy pruning of the roots 
will result in reducing the amount of wood growth by 
shutting off the amount of crude food material that is 
gathered from the soil. Heavy pruning of the top, on the 
other hand, tends to develop weak portions of the plant 
by allowing those parts to receive more food. In heavy 
pruning it is always advisable to remove the weakest parts, 
as they are usually unable to thrive, even under better con- 
ditions. But since heavy pruning stimulates the produc- 
tion of wood, suckers will be formed, some of which may 
take the place of the weak parts, and develop into strong 
branches, restoring the plant to its normal shape and habit. 
The most rational system allows the plant to take its nat- 
ural form, and this is especially the case with our fruit 
producing trees. This will vary somewhat with the age of 
a plant, as when trees are young they tend to a more up- 



176 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

right habit than after they reach maturity and have pro- 
duced several heavy crops of fruit. 

One part of a plant may live at the expense of another 
part. Very vigorous shoots will outgrow surrounding 
branches because they are better supplied with the crude 
food material collected by the root and appropriate the 
elaborated food formed in the leaves of their slower grow- 
ing neighbors. In trees which have just been grafted the 
suckers which arc formed below the graft will outgrow 
the branches which arise in the scion, and will outgrow the 
scion, and cause the starvation and death of the latter. 
The scion is, in a way, a parasite upon the branch, and the 
pflant tends to throw it off. 

The tendency of plants, and young plants especially, is 
to grow from the uppermost buds. By heading-in this 
tendency is overcome, and the plants stimulated into de- 
veloping lateral buds. An obstruction just above a branch 
or bud tends to produce strong longitudinal growth in that 
particular branch, while an obstruction below a bud stops 
the downward flow of sap and causes a thickening of the 
parts above. This is often resorted to in the manner of 
notching or girdling for the purpose of causing the forma- 
tion of fruit buds or the enlargement of particular speci- 
mens of fruit. But these factors are associated with modes 
of training rather than pruning proper. 

When plants are making an excessive amount of wood 
growth they do not make fruit buds. Checking the growth 
of the top b}' pinching or summer pruning will tend to 
produce fruitfulness. 

And while fruit bearing may be to a large extent gov- 
erned by the methods of pruning, the habitual production 
of fruit is better regulated by small amounts of pruning 
regularly done, than by heavy pruning at infrequent in- 
tervals. In the case of old trees which have beeii^ neg- 
lected, it may take two or three years after severe pruning 
before the balance between top and roots can reach an 
equilibrium and the tree become fruitful. Light pruning 
every year is much better for the trees than heav}^ pruning 
done occasionally. 



Principles of Pruning 177 

Pruning may be made a means of thinning the fruit 
by removing the fruit producing wood. In the case of 
plants which produce their fruit on the long growths of the 
season before, as in peaches, quinces, raspberries, black- 
berries and grapes, many fruit producing buds will be re- 




IJmbs cut off so as to leave Ions' stubs like this will 
never heal. The stubs will rot and finally result in a hollow 
tree. 

moved with each branch that is pruned off. In the case 
of trees that tend to an alternation in the years of fruitful- 
n.ess, as in apples and pears, the tendency to alternation 
may be somewhat overcome through pruning. 



178 ' The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

Summer Pruning 

All of the factors of pruning which have been men- 
tioned are governed largely by the time of year at which 
the pruning is done. Winter pruning tends to produce 
wood, while summer pruning tends to fruitfulness. Sum- 
mer pruning, through the removal of the leaves, reduces 
the working and elaborating surface, and a consequent 
tendency to starvation or weakening of the plant. If this 
summer pruning is done in such a manner, and at such a 
time as to stop the wood growth in the plant, it will gen- 
erally promote the formation of numerous fruit buds, but 
if done too early in the season the growth of the tree will 
be upset, and it will make a second and late growth that 
summer. If done too late, after the tree has stopped mak- 
ing wood growth for that summer, it will have much the 
same effect as winter pruning. Summer pruning is more 
often done by pinching the tips from shoots that are mak- 
ing an excessive growth rather than by cutting out any 
large amount of wood. 

The climate in which a tree is growing determines to a 
large extent what the manner of pruning shall be and when 
it need be done. In the colder parts of the country winter 
pruning, that is, cutting off large limbs during mid-winter, 
allows such a large amount of moisture to evaporate from 
the wood that: the bark may be damaged for some distance 
around each wound from the effects of drying out. 
Under such circumstances the pruning is best done late in 
the spring, so that the wounds can be closed over most 
quickly. In the hot, dry sections of the country there may 
be a considerable amount of sun-scalding following severe 
pruning, and has given rise to the statements in the Cen- 
tral Western ^ states that the trees should not be pruned. 
This, however, needs to be considered cafrefully, for, while 
it is true that in the states of bright sunshine and dry 
air the fruit will color up well even in trees with dense 
foliage, the trees will become more or less misshapen un- 
less pruned. Under such conditions the pruning needs to 
be followed just as regularly as in the humid air of the 
coast states, but needs be done less severely. 



Healing of Wounds 179 

In the Rocky Mountain region, where the rainfall is 
often less than eighteen inches annually, the trees have 
barely enough moisture to maintain themselves, and they 
have the habit of early fruiting. Cherry trees often pro- 
duce a heavy crop at five years from the bud. Throughout 
all this region fruit trees have such a tendency to overbear 
that the system of pruning needs to be heavy every win- 
ter. On the western side of the Cascade Mountains, 
where the air is thick with humidity most of the year, the 
trees make an excessive amount of wood growth and grow 
so late into the faU that they are many times not suffi- 
ciently matured and suffer more or less from winter kill- 
ing. Under such conditions the pruning should be done 
so as to prevent excessive wood growth, such as a gen- 
erous amount of summer pruning. It frequently happens 
in the irrigated sections that where the trees are heavily 
Avatered, they will make unusually long .shoots each season 
and set few fruit buds. This trouble can oftentimes be 
corrected without resorting to special pruning. By simply 
reducing the amount of water that is supplied to the trees, 
the vigorous wood growth can be stopped and the trees 
made to produce fruit buds. 

In fact the styles of pruning that must be adopted by 
the irrigation fruit grower must of necessity be governed 
by local conditions, and will be to a greater or less extent 
different from that in use in the rainy districts. 

The direction in which any given branch will grow will 
be governed by the position of the bud. In cutting off a 
branch it should be done just over a bud or branch that 
is on the side of the limb and pointing in the direction 
vrhich the new limb is to take. With young trees espe- 
cially the selection of a bud pointing in the direction the 
new limb is to take will enable the pruner to quickly and 
easily get the tree into the most desirable shape. 



Healing of Wounds 

The healing of large v/ounds is influenced by the posi- 
tion of the wound on the plant, the length of the stump, 



180 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



the kind of plant and its vigor, the smoothness of the sur- 
face of the wound and the season at which it is made. 
Theoretically the best time to make a large wound is in 
the early part of the growing season, as at that time it can 
begin to heal over without delay. Such wounds should 
be made by making two cuts, the first one being made 




In removing large branches, cut them close to the main 
limbs, the wounds will then heal quickly. 



h. foot or so from the junction of the branch to be re- 
moved with the limb to which it is attached. This will 
remove the strain of the heavy top and prevent the bark 
from peeling down on the limb that is to remain. After 
the weight of the branch has been removed, cut off the 
stump as nearly parallel with the main limb as possible 
and close up to it, so as to leave no stub whatever. The 



Pruning the Apple 181 

callus which will close over the wound cannot extend out 
on a stub, but will quickly close over a wound that is 
smoothly cut and parallel with the limb. 

On large wounds the wood should be coated with some 
waterproof covering, such as white lead paint, grafting wax 
or tanglefoot. This dressing is not for the purpose of has- 
tening the healing, as it will not do so, but it will close up 
the pores of the wood against the entry of water and 
fungi that cause the wood to rot. 

Pruning the Apple 

The work of pruning should start at the time the tree 
is planted in the orchard. This is a critical time in the 
life of the tree and neglect of pruning at that time influ- 
ences the tree during its remaining years. 

It needs to be borne in mind that there is a physiologi- 
cal reason for this early pruning, although it is frequently 
neglected or overlooked by the planter, who may later 
wonder why his trees died or made such a weak growth. 
The roots serve the tree to collect water and mineral ele- 
ments from the soil, which is carried through the sap wood 
to the leaves, and there elaborated and made over into the 
form in which it can be used by the tree in extending its 
branches and developing its fruit. 

When the tree is dug from the nursery most of its root 
system is left in the soil, and unless the top is reduced in 
proportion it will constitute too great a drain upon the 
small root system. This results in weakening the tree, 
frequently extending over a period of three years or more. 
It may even result in the death of the tree through its 
having used up all of the food material that is stored in the 
cells of its body before the roots can draw sufficient from 
the soil to supply the needs of the developing branches. 

In preparing new trees for planting, all of the bruised 
and broken roots need to be cut off smoothly so as to leave 
no ragged ends. All of the main roots should be shortened 
in to six inches or less, with a proportionate reduction of 
the top. 



182 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

In the Western states yearling trees are mostly used 
for planting and when such is the case the top consists 
of nothing more than a single whip. This is cut off to 
within twelve to twenty inches of the ground, depending 
on how tall it was before pruning. In the case of two- 
year-old trees, there will have been formed three or more 
side branches, each of which will be a foot or more long, 
and all of which need to be shortened in about one-half at 
the time the tree is planted. 

The shape of the future tree is determined to some ex- 
tent by the shape given to the tree during its first year, 
and more especially the height of the head above the 
ground. In the Western states the orchardists prefer a 
tree with a low head, while in the East the trees are gen- 
erally allowed to make a high head. Where one-year-old 
trees are used there will be no side branches at the time 
the tree is set, and all of its branches will have to form 
during the first summer in the premanent plantation. This 
gives the orchard man an opportunity to place the head 
just where it is desired, but when the head has been formed 
in the nursery it frequently happens that it is far too high 
above the ground. 

In selecting the branches to form the permanent head, 
from three to five should be taken that are well distributed 
around the stem of the tree, and at some distance apart 
up and down the trunk. Where the branches all come out 
at about the same height it will result in a head that is 
easily split when the tree is loaded with fruit, and unless 
the branches are well distributed around the tree it will 
make the tree more or less one-sided. 

In removing the limbs of a young tree make the cuts 
slanting and just above a bud, leaving a stub not more 
than an eighth or quarter of an inch long. A stub 
of this length will not be so long as to decay before 
it can be healed over, and it is not so close to the 
bud as to cause injury through drying out. Heavy winter 
pruning should be the practice with apple trees during the 
fn-st four or five years in order to stimulate them into 
making a strong growth and building up a large frame- 



The Second Year 183 

■work for the future fruiting surface. In those regions 
where excessive wood growth is a normal or usual condi- 
tion the winter pruning will not need to be as heavy as 
where the rainfall is light and trees do not make as vig- 
orous growth without stimulation. 

When planting one-year-old apple trees there is little 
likelihood of getting trees that are forked, but in older stock 
some of the trees will be forked, with the two leaders of 
nearly the same size. If trees of that sort are planted they 
will usually result in one of the limbs being split off 
when it is loaded Math fruit. In planting forked trees the 
possibility of future breaking down of one side can be en- 
tirely done away with by cutting back one of the branches 
of the fork to a strong bud near the base, or by cutting 
the limb out entirely. In pruning off the other limbs, cut 
them back to a bud that points in the direction it is desired 
the new limb shall take. 

The Second Year 

During the first year in the orchard there is little prun- 
ing necessary aside from the shortening in of the tree at 
the time it is planted, but beginning with the second year 
some definite system needs to be adopted and followed 
out. In this respect there are two general systems or 
shapes for the commercial apple trees, one of them being 
the pyramidal and the other vase. The pyramidal tree 
means one in which the central branch or branches have 
not been removed, and which of necessity makes a tree 
that soon becomes very tall, and unless carefully tended 
and pruned in later years will carry the greatest portion 
of its crop high above the ground. To shape trees after 
this fashion, the main central branch of the young tree 
should be allowed to grow; the only pruning that should 
ever be given it being just enough to shorten it somewhat 
each year, and thin cut the side branches upon it so as to 
keep them well distributed. 

The vase shaped tree seems to be of Western origin, 
and requires a low head. This shape may be better called 



184 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



the "open center" tree, as it means a tree in which the 
central branches have been removed and the lateral 
branches so trained as to leave the center of the tree open 
to sunlight and air. It is a style of training that produces 
a larger percentage of highly colored fruit than is possible 
with pyramidal trees in the hands of the average man. 




Well arranged branches in the head of an open-top apple 
tree. Trunk protected from rabbits by a wooden veneer 
wrapper. 



This vase shape must be started at the begining of the 
second year in the orchard by cutting out the central leader 
in the little trees, allowing nothing to remain but from 



Pruning the Peach 185 

three to five side branches that are distributed some inches 
apart up and down the stem of the tree. Unless these 
branches are distributed several inches apart they are lia- 
ble to make a fork that will be easily split, and as this style 
of pruning makes trees that are more or less weak in the 
fork, all possible care needs to be observed in getting the 
crown as strong as possible. 

Subsequent pruning will be for the purpose of maintain- 
ing the shape of the tree, thinning the fruiting wood, pro- 
moting wood growth, promoting fruitfulness, removing 
unnecessary or injured parts and facilitating harvesting 
and spraying. 

No formal rules can be laid down as to how an apple 
• tree should be pruned after it has passed its second year 
in the orchard, as it depends to a large extent upon the 
variety, the locality, the age and climate. It needs to be 
borne in mind, however, that summer pruning tends to fruit- 
fulness, while winter pruning tends to the production of 
wood growth, and in the Western states where trees have 
the tendency to overbear, winter pruning is by far more im- 
portant than summer pruning. 

The tops of the trees need to be pruned every year. 
I^ it is not done they. soon become a mass of tangled 
branches, many of which are long and slender, and when 
heavily laden with fruit are easily broken down. When 
cutting off a branch or twig, make the cut close to a 
lateral branch, so as to not leave a stub. The sap in 
passing up the branch will be directed into the lateral, and 
in its downward course it will close over the wound made 
close to a lateral branch, whereas if a stub is left the heal- 
ing callus cannot close over it. 

Pruning the Peach 

The peach is a fruit that responds very quickly to the 
amount of pruning done upon the trees, and in a commer- 
cial orchard pruning is one of the most important opera- 
tions. Thorough pruning tends toward regular fruitfulness. 
It influences the size of the crop, and the size of the fruit, 



186 



The Fru it-Growers Guide-Book 



a"s well as the period of starting into growth in the spring, 
the color of the fruit, time of ripening and longevity of 
the tree. 

Unlike the apple, the peach produces its fruit upon 
wood produced during the preceding summer, and since 
the tendency is to excessive wood growth, unless the trees 
arc regularly pruned, they soon become long branched 
and high topped, and make it difficult to harvest the fruit. 




The foundation of a good framework in a peach tree lays 
entirely in tlie proper arrangement of the limbs during the 
first year in the orchard. This tree has its limbs well ar- 
ranged. 



One-year-old trees direct from the nursery are most 
desired for orchard planting and will consist of a single 
long straight whip with many side branches. These side 
branches should be cut back so as to leave but one bud 
at their base, and the main stem cut off, leaving from three 
to five side branches. These should be so selected that they 



Pruning the Peach 



187 



are well distributed around the tree. This is for the pur- 
pose of making a strong fork at the head. It is always 
desirable to get these main limbs to come out as near 
to the surface of the soil as possible, at most not over a 







Three branches at the head, each dividing into two, 
raakiug a wide spreading tree of ideal shape. 



foot from the soil for the lowest limb. This will give the 
tree a low head and facilitate all of the operations in con- 
nection with the subsequent orchard. 

The tendency of the peach is to make a large amount 
of wood growth each year, and it is nothing uncommon to 



188 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



see trees that have made branches six and seven feet long 
in a single summer. Such limbs generally continue grow- 
ing until so late in the summer that they are not properly 




The average type of round top found in the peach trees 
of the Middle West. The head is too high above the ground. 



matured by autumn and go into winter in a soft and sappy 
condition and are easily winter injured. Excessive wood 



Pruning the Peach 189 

growth is not desired, but a good vigorous amount is to 
be encouraged at all times. 

The st3'le of pruning that is most approved of for 
peaches is that which will allow of an open head. This 
will permit the sunlight to penetrate down into the center 
of the head and cause the branches to set more fruit buds 
and to reduce the amount of rot in the fruit. Trees so 
pruned will usually make a large number of small twigs 
on the bases of the larger branches and increase the num- 
ber of buds on the tree. These small branches are usually 
the most hardy, and carr}^ through the winter in better 
shape. 

Pruning in peaches is not done as a rule until rather 
late in winter oj early in spring, for the jeason that it is 
best to wait until it can be determined with some cer- 
tainty whether there will be a crop of fruit that season or 
not. If the fruit should have all been killed by a severe 
winter or a late freeze, then the pruning will have to be 
done differently than if there is good prospects for a full 
crop. Where the fruit has not been damaged by the cold 
weather, then the amount of wood to remove will be only 
about half of the longest branches, cutting in all cases so 
as to maintain the shape of the tree and to keep the center 
open. Any large limbs that have a tendency to crowd up 
the center of the tree should be either cut out entirely or 
so shortened back that they will not shut out the sunlight 
from the middle. 

When the fruit has all been killed by the severity of the 
Vy-eather, advantage can be taken of the circumstance to 
cut back more or less severely and renew the top of the 
tree. This will have the advantage of lowering the top and 
reshaping the tree. It is a method that has its limitations, 
but is very useful where the fruit buds have all been killed. 

In cases where the injury from the winter has damaged 
the wood of the tree to such an extent that it has a brown 
color, it is advisable to head-back the tree, cutting often- 
times into wood that may be as much as four years old. 
This will so reduce the size of the top that the roots can 



190 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



force out a large amount of new wood, and trees so treated 
will make a very vigorous growth during the summer fol- 
lowing, although they may be somewhat late in start- 
ing. On such wood the growing period will usually 
be continued late into the fall, and the wood will 
not always be well matured by the time cold weather ar- 
rives, and under such conditions the buds will not be as 
hardy as the buds on slower growing and well matured 




The head of this tree is too high above the grovind. It is 
pruned so as to open it, and let the sunlight down Into the 
center. 



trees. But these buds have an advantage in that they are 
slower in starting into growth in the spring and often- 
times will escape late frosts that might otherwise damage 
the fruit. The hardiest buds are always at the base of the 
new wood, and especially of the well matured, plump wood 
on the slower growing branches. 

Aside from determining the shape of the tree pruning has 



Pruning the Cherry 



191 



another influence in that it results in a thinning of the fruit 
by removing some of the fruit buds. The peach always sets 
many times more buds than it can possibly mature into 
fruit, and there is a distinct necessity for the removal of 
some of the fruit by thinning. When this thinning can be 
done through the removal of the wood it is a saving of labor, 
and results in fruit of a larger size, better shape and higher 
color. 




Peach tree with open top. Head starts neai' the ground, 
enabling pickers to reach most of the fruit without the use 
of ladders. 



Pruning the Cherry 

With cherry trees, both sweet and sour, most of 
the pruning the trees will need must be done during the 
first three or four years. This is necessary for the pur- 
pose of providing a large framework to furnish the fruiting 
wood in future years. In both kinds of cherries this frame- 
work needs to be made as broad as possible. Sweet cher- 
ries are inclined to be more upright in habit than sour va- 



192 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

rieties, and will need to be opened out more by cutting to 
buds on the outer sides of the limbs. With sour kinds the 
trees will need little pruning after the third or fourth year. 
All that may be needed will be to cut out branches which 
cross or which are dead. 

With sweet cherries there is a tendency to an excessive 
amount of wood growth, and it is not unusual for such 
kinds of trees to produce five feet of new wood in a sea- 
son. This is especially true of young trees. For planting 
in the orchard one-year-old trees are most desirable, and 
they are cut off at about 24 to 36 inches of the ground. A 
number of side branches will be sent out, and only four or 
five of these should be retained, providing that many can 
be had properly distributed around the stem and widely 
separated from each other. Unless the branches forming 
the head of a cherry tree are well distributed it will result 
in a tree that is subject to gummosis. Sweet cherries are 
especially subject to this trouble and every care needs to 
be exercised to prevent it. Where the branches of the 
head come out too close together cracking and splitting 
will result, not only making them subject to gummosis, but 
possibly causing them to break off. 

In case the sweet cherries are injured by the winter 
cold, let them stand unpruned until about time the buds 
start, then prune in the same manner as for peach trees 
which have been frozen. 

The Bing cherry is especially liable to grow late in the 
summer and go into winter carrying its leaves, and pos- 
sibly not having formed its terminal bud before frost. The 
cambium layer will be so soft and tender that it will be 
completely killed, yet the tree will start into growth only 
to die early in the summer. Do not permit the trees to 
grow late, but harden them up by a judicious amount of 
summer pruning, so that they will shed their leaves early. 
In the irrigated sections late growth is often caused by 
irrigating too late in the summer. Under irrigation it is 
quite eas}'- to regulate the amount of wood that will be pro- 
duced on trees by regulating the supply of water. Late 
applications will make the trees grow late, but by shutting 



Pruning the Pear 193 

it off early the trees will stop growing and ripen their 
wood before the arriVal of cold weather. 



Pruning the Apricot 

In the East the apricot is headed at a couple or three 
feet from the ground, while in the West the head is placed 
a little lower. One or two-year-old trees are the best for 
planting. Where yearling trees are used they should be cut 
off at about eighteen inches from the ground. This will 
start out several good strong branches. The lowest one to 
be retained should be about a foot from the ground, and 
three or four others selected which are well arranged around 
the stem, and at a distance of a few inches apart. This ar- 
rangement will make a strong head, and one which is not 
as apt to be broken down under a load of fruit as if the 
branches came out close together. It may be necessary 
to go over the trees a few times during the first summer 
and pinch out those shoots which are not desired so as to 
throw the strength of the plant into those branches that 
are to form the permanent framework of the tree. 

Apricots come into bearing early, and by the third year 
in most places they will produce a crop. All of the pruning 
that will be needed after the trees come into bearing will 
be just enough to keep the tree in shape and growing 
thriftily. 

Pruning the Pear 

The habit of the pear tree is usually more upright and 
compact than with most varieties of apples. On account 
of this habit it needs to be pruned in such manner as 
to open the head and make it spread out. This can be 
done by starting the work early in the life of the tree, and 
prune in such way as to direct the new branch outward 
rather than upward. Select a bud that points in the desired 
direction and cut to it. 

One or two-year-old pear trees are most desired for 
planting and they will have much the same appearance 

(7) 



194 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

and shape as have apples of the same age. The pruning 
at planting time is done in the same way as for apples. 
Start the head low and if the trees make a very strong 
growth during the first summer cut back some of the limbs 
that are the strongest, cutting to an outer bud always, so 
as to open out the head. The fruiting habit of the pear 
is quite the same as with apples and just here precau- 
tion needs to be taken in selecting the fruiting wood. The 
pear is very subject to attacks of the destructive bacillus 
causing *'fire blight" and as this disease enters the trees 
most readily through the blossoms great precautions are 
needed to keep the fruit spurs clipped off the main 
branches. 

These spurs will begin to form at from three to five 
years in most varieties of pears. During the first four 
or five years prune hard so as to encourage wood growth, 
but after the fifth year in the Central and Western states, 
and the seventh and eighth year in the East, where pears 
do not come into bearing so early, all of the winter prun- 
ing should be reduced or stopped, and more summer prun- 
ing done. This is necessary for the purpose of making the 
pear tree produce a hard wood which is resistant to fire 
blight. The best time to do this summer pruning is in 
August in the middle and northern sections of the country 
and later in the South, where late growth is made. By 
pruning late in the summer the trees will have made a 
good amount of wood, but the shock of pruning will take 
some weeks to overcome, and by that time the climatic 
conditions are such as normally stop wood formation 
in the tree. If the summer pruning is done too early the 
trees may be able to start into growth a second time and 
continue growing so late as to go into the winter with 
soft wood that is easily injured by the cold. 

Pruning Brambles 

Brambles are blackberries, raspberries and dewberries, 
and these constitute a group of plants that produce their 
fruit on the wood that grew the preceding year, and which 



Pruning Brambles 195 

after having produced one crop of fruit dies. The pruning 
of these fruits consists in removing the old canes after 
they have ripened their crop and in heading back the 
young canes during the early growing period so as to make 
them branch out and increase their fruiting surface. The 
winter pruning consists in shortening in the laterals that 
were formed after the canes were pinched back during the 
summer. 

With blackberries in all of the country east of the Cas- 
cade Mountains to the Atlantic Coast, the canes are 
headed back by pinching out a couple of inches of the 
tips after reaching a height of a couple of feet. This will 
make the canes throw out strong lateral branches that 
become the fruiting wood for the next year. In the winter 
these side branches are to be shortened in, and the amount 
of cutting that may be necessary will vary with the va- 
riety. Some kinds like Wilson produce their fruit mostly 
close to the cane, and consequently the branches can be 
shortened in quite close, but with kinds like the Snyder and 
Early Harvest, the fruiting portion is near the ends of the 
branches, and consequently not so much may be removed. 
It is always well to remove plenty of the wood in order to 
thin the fruit. 

Blackberry bushes that are shaped in this manner and 
where the canes were pinched early, will be strong enough 
to stand alone, but in case of tall growing varieties like 
the Snyder it may be best to stretch a wire along both 
sides of the row to keep the canes from bending over when 
loaded with fruit. 

Many experienced growers of blackberries prefer to 
train the canes on a trellis of some sort. In New York 
state, and some parts of the East, a two-wire trellis is ar- 
ranged with the wires a couple of feet apart, and fastened 
to a strong post at the ends of the rows. The young canes 
are pinched just a little above the upper wire and tied to 
that wire until after the fruit has ripened. This will 
keep them out of the way of the fruit-producing canes, 
which are tied to the lower wire. 

The canes may remain tied to the wires all winter, or 



196 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

if winter killing is liable to happen, they may be laid down 
and covered. When they are lifted up they are tied 
to the lower wires and the upper wire left for the new 
canes as they appear. Where only a few hills are grown, 
as for home use, it is always best to tie them to single 
stakes. The only objection to this proceeding is that it 
is liable to bunch the canes too much and cause more or 
less loss from spotting of the leaves. Not more than three 
canes should be allowed in a hill, where tied to stakes, and 
only five or six in a hill where arranged on a trellis. 

In the Northwest a two-wire trellis is used for black- 
berries, but the wires are placed at the same level, at- 
tached to a strong cross bar firmly nailed to the posts. If 
the rows are long, posts are set at intervals of twenty-five 
feet in the row. A double wire is run down each side of 
the cross arms, and the fruit producing canes are placed 
between these wires before growth begins in the spring. 
The canes are thus held firmly from bending over under 
their weight of fruit, and are out where the fruit can be 
most easily picked. The space between the wires is open 
and for the exclusive use of the new canes. As soon as 
the fruit is harvested the canes which have produced a 
crop of fruit are cut out, and any new canes over five in 
each hill. The most experienced growers prefer to have 
only five canes in a hill, and all others are removed as fast 
as they appear after the fruit is harvested. 

The Evergreen and Loganberry need to be grown on 
trellis, as they make from twenty to forty feet of cane 
a season, and it is out of the question to handle them 
on the ground. When on trellises, the wires are ar- 
ranged at levels of two and four feet, with the fruit bear- 
ing canes on the upper wires and the young canes on the 
lower. This keeps the canes where they can be reached, 
and as these kinds of berries have such villainous thorns, 
they must be trained so that they can be handled with the 
least amount of punishment from the thorns. As soon as 
the fruiting is over, the old canes are cut away and the 
young canes are placed on the upper trellis where they will 
receive the full sunlight and air. 



Pruning Brambles 



19: 



Black raspberries, or back-caps as they are sometimes 
called, are pruned quite like the blackberry. The new- 
canes are pinched at a couple of feet from the ground to 
make them branch out, and these laterals are cut back 
about half in late winter or before growth begins in the 




Dewberry canes trained to a post, 
canes in a liil.i. 



From three to five 



1&8 The Frii it-Growers Guide-Book 

spring. Black-caps should be tied up to a trellis where the 
variety grows very vigorously and is liable to fall down 
under a load of fruit. 

Red raspberries are pruned and trained in the same 
manner as black raspberries, except that it is not neces- 
sary to pinch the canes in the summer. 

: Dewberries are sometimes trained on stakes or trel- 
lises, as they make a great amount of wood and very long 
canes. A common method of handling dewberries is to 
grow them in hills fifteen feet apart. Let the canes re- 
main on the ground without a trellis. Just as soon as the 
crop has all been harvested mow all of the canes off close 
to the ground, gather them up and haul out of the field. 
!New ones will quickly appear and make a good growth 
during the remainder of the summer and be in good shape 
to produce a crop of fruit the next spring. This is rather 
vigorous treatment but it serves as a quick and easy means 
of getting rid of the tangle of old canes, which, unless re- 
moved will so choke up the hills in a few years that the 
plants are worthless. Growers who practice this method 
of pruning feel that the plantation will be short lived either 
way, and that it is an advantage to have the fields clean 
and free from dead wood rather than choked up with 
weeds and old canes. 



Profits in Fruit Growing 199 



CHAPTER VTII 



Profits in Fruit Growing 

There is such a gradually increasing amount of interest 
in the matter of fruit growing that thousands of persons 
are each year leaving their jobs in the offices, school 
■ rooms, shops and stores to undertake fruit growing for 
a livelihood. Some of them succeed in making a living, 
some make a failure and return to their former occupa- 
tions, while others become wealthy. Many extravagant 
statements have been made by enthusiastic promoters of 
some certain sections concerning the unbelievable profits 
that it is possible to make from given areas of their land. 
In many instances these profits are purely visionary, while 
in many others they are entirely reliable. 

From reliable data which has been collected in several 
states, it is apparent that sums ranging from $1,000 to 
$3,000 per year can be obtained from an acre of land under 
some conditions. Usually these conditions are beyond the 
reach of the amateur, and have been obtained by expert 
horticulturists, who have been several years in developing 
their product and their market. But it is also possible in 
many cases for inexperienced persons to make excellent 
incomes from fruit plantations, and it does not matter 
what state or section of the country one goes to, splendid 
I'eturns can be obtained. There is this one fact to be 
learned from the data collected, and that is that some sec- 
tions of the country are more favorable for the inexperi- 
enced to obtain large returns. These sections are gener- 
ally in those regions where there is an abundance of fer- 



Profits in Fruit Growing 201 

tile, virgin soil, where the climate is mild and where the 
fruit or vegetable industry is more or less well developed. 
This is particularly true of the far Western and Southern 
states. It seems that where a number of persons in one 
locality are engaged in the same line of business there is 
a stronger spirit of optimism and mutual assistance, which 
work greatly to the advantage of the grower. 

The following are representative samples of the letters 
which have come to the attention of the writer bearing on 
the matter of profits that are obtained in fruit growing. 

Here is one from Bedford County, Virginia: "On 32 
apple trees which are about 60 years old, and occupying 
about one acre, the crop in 1909 sold for an even $1,000. 
Its yield in some seasons past has brought a return of 
$1,500. The land near this orchard is valued at from $20 
to $60 per acre. Near this orchard is another one which 
produced 240 barrels on one acre, and sold for $2 per bar- 
rel, or a valuation of 16 per cent on a valuation of $3,000 
per acre." 

The profits from growing fruit come not alone from 
the harvest of fruit each year, but also from the increased 
value of land, which brings good returns. A Virginian 
says: "When I came into possession of my property it 
sold for $7,500 and was not readily saleable at that figure. 
Through the planting of orchards I have been able to sell 
off land in this tract to the amount of between $25,000 and 
$30,000 and retain a property worth two or three times 
the original value." 

Apples are the leading fruit crop in some sections of 
the far West and have been known to bring fabulous re- 
turns in some instances, but not every one can get such 
enormous profits. The average profits will run like this 
grower in the Yakima Valley of Washington got. He says 
that his three and one-half acres of apples have, in five 
years, brought a gross return of $20,000. In Parker Bot- 
toms of this same valley a pear grower made a net profit 
of $20,610 from 618 pear trees planted in 1894. This is an 
average yearly net profit of over $1,100 per acre. 



202 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



Growers near Wenatchee, Washington, have made good 
profits on their orchards, as is shown by the following: 
Four acres of six-year-old trees produced a crop in 1907 
which sold for $4,451, and in the next year the crop on 
these same trees sold for $4,800, and in 1909, $5,400. A 
certain grower came to that valley in 1898 and paid $625 
for five acres of raw land. In 1909 he sold his apple crop" 
from this five acres for $3,250 and has refused $15,000 for 
his land. In this same valley, on a small orchard of 
peaches the grower got a return of $2,596 per acre for the 




Tomatoes grown as a catch crop between the tree rows 
while the orchard is young. 



fruit of one year. Fifty-four D'Anjou pear trees on two- 
thirds of an acre produced 952 boxes of pears that sold in 
the New York market for a price that would net the owner 
at the rate of $3,806 per acre. Another grower got $3,250 
from five acres of apples planted in 1897. This is a return 
of 10 per cent on a valuation of $6,500 per acre. 

D'Anjou pears from a single tree in an orchard near 
Central Point, Oregon, in 1907 sold for $204.75 net. 

Near this same place another man harvested 3,020 boxes 



Profits in Fruit Growing 203 

of apples, the fruit from fifty-two trees, which netted 
$1,747.62. 

This happened in a valley famous for its fruit crops and 
its enormous returns. In that valley one grower got $1,050 
net from one acre of Spitzenburg apples, and $1,420 froiij 
an acre of Newtowns. Another got $1,620 from an acre of 
Spitzenburgs. In another orchard the crop of Bartlett 
pears from a single acre brought $1,244 after all expenses 
were paid. 

Near Phoenix, Ariz., one man got $3,300 in net profit 
from the first crop of fruit produced on nineteen acres. 

Not far from Mt. Selma, Texas, a fruit grower got a 
profit of $500 from five acres of peaches. x\nother man 
gets $2,800 from nineteen acres, ten of which are in peaches 
and the rest tomatoes. 

In Michigan a fruit man got $900 from three acres of 
strawberries, and another man down in Mississippi got 
$450 from one acre of strawberries. A farmer in Marien- 
ette County, Wisconsin, sold $250 worth of strawberries 
from one-fourth acre of land. A neighbor of his got 
$922.54 after paying all expenses in harvesting and market- 
ing the crop from two and one-fourth acres of strawber- 
ries. A man near Superior beat these men a little in get- 
ting $800 from one acre of strawberries. 

From these figures it is evident that the fruit grower 
has abundant opportunity to obtain large returns from his 
efforts. These returns are not the maximum that is pos- 
sible to obtain, but represent incomes received by the aver- 
age intelligent grower. 



204 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



CHAPTER IX 



Small Fruits 

Blackberries 

The blackberry is a native American fruit, growing wild 
over a great portion of the eastern half of the country. 
Until about 1840 no attention was given to it under culti- 
vation, as the wild patches were abundant and fruitful, 
but in 1841 the first cultivated form was introduced and 
was followed in a short time by the Lawton, Kittitinny 
and Snyder. These varreties are still the leading sorts 
under cultivation, and, while they have many desirable 
characters, they point to the neglect which horticulturists 
have given to the improvement of blackberries. 

While the area of succcessful cultivation of the black- 
berry does net extend as far north as the raspberry, it 
reaches over a great portion of the South, in sections where 
the other kinds of bush fruits do not succeed. The kind 
of soil which is preferred by blackberry is indicated by the 
soil in which the wild sorts are found to do the best. This 
is a strong moist loam, in full sunlight. Where the soil 
becomes water logged for any portion of the year the ber- 
ries do not thrive, and if the situation is one which be- 
comes excessively dry during a considerable portion of the 
year, the plants do not do well. On this account, low 
ground or very sandy soil is not suitable for blackberries, 
although if given very good care in such locations they 
will produce some for home use. Where the plants are to 
be set in sandy soil they should be placed on a northern 
slope, as in such a position they will not be so liable to 



Planting 205 

suffer from lack of moisture; while in low ground a strong 
southern exposure will be better as it will be somewhat 
dryer than a similar position on a northern slope. 

Soils which are very rich in nitrogen produce plants, 
with very strong wood, but little fruit, as the energy is 
largely spent in making wood growth, at the expense of 
fruitfulness. On this account there will be more or less 
winter killing of the shoots in the Northern localities. 



Preparing the Soil 

The land which is to be planted to blackberries should 
be given very good preparation, especially if it is for a 
commercial or local market plantation. Plow it deeply in 
the fall and allow to lay rough all winter. The action of 
the frost will break up the lumps and liberate a large 
amount of the fertility. Then work it down smooth with 
a disk harrow as early in the spring as it is in condition to 
work, finishing up with a drag. Lay off the rows with a 
diamond plow, about eight feet apart and set the plants 
four feet apart in the row. 

Propagation 

Blackberries are propagated either from root cuttings 
or from suckers which come up around the parent plant. 
Either can be used with success in starting the new planta- 
tion, although if cuttings are to be used, they should be 
grown for one season in the nursery row in order to get 
established. 

Planting 

Spring planting is the best, as the plants start into 
growth immediately. The young plants are set in the 
furrow made by the diamond plow, and about four inches 
below the surface. During the first year or two the cul- 
tivation should be very thorough and frequent in order to 
induce the roots of the plants to penetrate into the deeper 



206 



The Fru it-Growers Guide-Book 



soil, after which time the cultivation may be stopped, ex- 
cept for just enough to control the suckers which may 
appear in the middle of the rows. Sweeps or square point- 
ed shovels on the cultivator make the best tools to keep 
the suckers cut out, and this work should not be neglected, 
for unless the suckers are cut out as fast as they appear 
the plantation will become a brier patch in a couple of 
seasons and so badly tangled with the thorny canes as to 




At 13a is shown the 
usual method of mak- 
ing root cutting-s of 
the blackberry; 13b 
shows one of the 
same cuttings after it 
has started to grow. 



make it difficult to get through to harvest the fruit. In 
fact, the fruit from plantations which are not cultivated 
and pruned is smaller and more seedy than from those 
which are given good care. 



Pruning 

The canes of blackberries and other bramble fruits are 
biennial; that is, they live but two years. On this account 
it is necessary to cut out the old canes as soon as their 



Harvesting and Marketing 207 

function has been completed and leave the room for the 
young canes. The first year after planting two or three 
canes will appear, which should have the growing tip 
pinched out when the cane becomes about eighteen inches 
or two feet high. This will cause the canes to send out 
several lateral branches and make stocky plants. This 
pinched out when they become about eighteen inches 
after for the purpose of inducing the plants to send out 
lateral branches, and thereby increasing the fruit producing 
area of each plant. After the second year the pinching 
should be done when the new canes become two or three 
feet high, depending on the vigor of the plants. Some 
growers practice cutting out the old canes just as soon as 
the fruit has been harvested, while others will allow them 
to remain until the following spring. Whether they are 
cut out in the summer or the following spring seems to 
make little difference, but in the spring the lateral branches 
should all be cut back about one-third. This will make 
the plants stockier and less liable to fall over when carry- 
ing their fruit, and it will also thin the fruit, by removing 
some of the fruit producing wood. 

Harvesting and Marketing 

For distant markets the blackberry should be picked 
at just the time that it begins to color nicely, and while 
the berry is still solid. But for local markets and home 
use the fruit should be allowed to become more nearly 
fully ripe. The fruit which is picked before it has reached 
full maturity will be quite acid, and just as it is picked 
from the plants it will not be suitable for use, although it 
will soften up and take on a very good flavor in the course 
of a few days, while it is going to market. Fruit which 
has ripened on the plants is by far the most delicious, but 
on account of the very thin and tender skin such fruit will 
not bear transportation, as it is very juicy and leaks badly 
when even slightly crushed. 

Marketing is usually done in quart boxes, although 
when the fruit is to be shipped for a considerable distance 
the one pint cups will carry the fruit with less injury from 



208 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

crushing. In such cups blackberries have been sent with 
complete satisfaction from the Puget Sound country of 
Washington to Chicago. 

Winter Protection 

In regions of severe winters, such as from northern 
Missouri northward, tender varieties, such as Early Har- 
vest, will need to be protected to prevent winter killing. 
In northern Iowa and Minnesota it is advisable to protect 
all varieties of blackberries in the winter to keep the canes 
from being killed. This winter protection is usually done 
by bending the canes over and covering them with soil. 
Begin at one end of them and bend the canes over to the 
north or west, as they will then hold the snow better. 
Cover the tips with soil to hold them down. Bend the 
next hill over this, shingle fashion, and weight down the 
tips. Then when all are bent over, mulch them well with 
straw. For such practice better results can be obtained 
by growing the plants in hills rather than in solid rows. 

Currants 

The currant is essentially a Northern fruit as in the 
Northern states, where the weather is cool during the sum- 
ers, it reaches its best development. In the Middle and 
Southern states it produces fair crops of fruit when placed 
in a semi-shaded position, as on the northern side of a row 
of trees, or a fence. The currant enjoys a cool atmosphere 
and thrives in the climate of the northern portion of the 
Alississippi valley. 

The cultivated varieties have come from a number of 
wild forms, mostly natives of Europe, and because of the 
diversity of the types from which these varieties have 
originated, we have in cultivation several kinds of dif- 
ferent colors, such as black, red and white kinds. These 
all differ quite markedly in flavor, and the red and white 
varieties are most extensively grown. The black forms 
liave a flavor which does not appeal to many persons and 
are grown but little outside of Canada. 



Propagating and Planting 
Propagation and Planting 



209 



Tlie currant may be propagated by division of the 
parent plant, by layers or by hard wood cuttings. Which- 
ever is used, the plants should be set in well prepared soil, 
which is rich, fertile and well drained. Two-year-old 




Currant cuttings tied in a bundle and buried upside down 
to callus. 



plants from cuttings are better for setting in the field, as 
they are larger and can be handled more rapidly than the 
newly rooted cuttings. 



210 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

The common distance for setting currants is five feet 
apart in the rows with the rows eight feet apart. 

Pruning 

The best fruit is produced on canes which are not over 
four or five years old. For this reason they will not need 
as much pruning as other kinds of bush fruit but will need 
to be gone over and have the oldest wood cut out, leaving 
the hills full of strong fruitful wood. By cutting out a few 
of the old canes each year a balance may be kept between 
the new and old canes, and the plant kept in a vigorous 
and fruitful condition. 

On vigorous plants the shoots are inclined to make 
very strong growths, often reaching a height of six feet 
in a single season. When such is the case it is best to 
keep them pinched back to about three feet as in the case 
of the raspberry. It is also an advantage to cut out all 
but five or six of the strongest r nes in each hill. Winter 
protection is not necessary with -.he currants and goose- 
berries. But on account of the long slender branches 
which they produce, in regions where there is a heavy 
snowfall, these branches may be bent over to the ground 
with the weight of the snow. On this account it is best to 
gather the canes into a bundle and tie them with a cord to 
prevent their being bent over. 

Dewberry 

This is a trailing form of the blackberry that has but 
recently come into Cdltivation. It grows in all parts of 
the country and its fruit cannot be distinguished by the 
general public from the ordinary varieties of blackberries. 
Its chief advantage is that it comes in some two or three 
weeks ahead of the ordinary kinds of blackberries, coming 
in after the raspberries have passed, and fills the gap when 
good prices can be had for the fruit. As a rule they are 
not sure croppers in most places, due perhaps to imperfect 
pollinization, and when such is the case it can be overcome 
by planting several varieties together. 



Propagating and Planting 211 

Soils 

The wild plants are lound growing on sandy or other- 
wise well drained and rather impoverished soils. This may- 
be because it is crowded out of the better locations by 
other kinds of plants, and can maintain its existence only 
on those soils which are too poor to support other kinds 
of vegetation. Under cultivation it does well on a great va- 
riety of soils, and locations which are suitable for black- 
berries do well for the dewberry. 

Propagation and Training 

Dewberries are propagated from rooted tips, as are the 
black raspberries, and also from root cuttings. The plants 
are set in rows 4 to 6 feet apart and 3 or 3 feet apart in 
the row. The best system of culture is to train the vines 
en a trellis or tie them to stakes. Some growers allow the 
vines to run over the surface, and are pruned just enough 
to Ivcep them in hills. 

Where the winters are so severe as to make it neces- 
sary to protect ihe plants during the winter, they can be 
most easily handled when placed on a trellis or tied to 
posts. 

The trellises are made by running two wires along the 
row on posts about two feet high, bearing at the two ends 
a cross arm twenty inches wide. The wires are fastened 
to the ends of these cross arms and the canes drawn up 
over them. About a dozen canes can be allowed to form 
in each hill with this style of training. Where single posts 
are used there can be no more than half a dozen canes 
from each hill, and they are tied to the post and allowed 
to fall over the top. 

. The culture of the dewberry is similar in every detail 
to that of the blackberry. When given good care they are 
very productive but when neglected the fruitfulness is vari- 
able. Young plantations need to be kept in clean culti- 
vation until the plants are well established. In cold cli- 
mates the canes will need to be covered in the winter to 



212 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

prevent their being frozen back. When trained to posts 
they can be laid down very easily and covered with 
soil. If the canes are pegged down and covered with 
leaves or straw, a plow furrow can be run on each side 
turning the soil over the plants, and an entire row covered 
very quickly. 

Grapes 

The grape is the most widely cultivated of all kinds of 
fruits. It is found growing wild on nearly every conti- 
nent in the world, and cultivated forms have been in vine- 
yards at almost every stage of the world's history. It is 
the fruit for the masses since varieties can be had which 
are adapted to almost any condition of soil or climate. 
Because of the ease with which it can be grown the grape 
is especially desirable for the home grounds, as it will 
flourish and produce acceptable crops under conditions 
where tree fruits could not find room. The grape is one 
of the most delicious of fruits, and because of the great 
number of varieties, obtained from an almost innumerable 
list of ancestors, it can be had in a good many flavors and 
shades of color, so that all persons can find among the 
varieties some kinds which are to their liking. 

There are so many different varieties of grapes that 
kinds can be had which are adapted to almost any condi- 
tion, and which will succeed in almost any climate where 
fruit can be grov/n. It is easily propagated, easily grown, 
bears early, lives much longer than the average bush or 
tree and gives a larger amount of fruit under average con- 
ditions of the home garden than any other kind of plant. 

Soil and Location. 

As a rule the grape is not particular as to the soil or 
location in which it is grown, although some kinds produce 
better when given special locations. But in general the 
grape will do well in soils that are rocky, sandy or heavy 
clay, rich or poor, and under conditions where other fruits 
would fail. For the commercial plantation, however, this 



Planting 213 

should not indicate that care need not be given to the 
selection of a site that is adapted to the growing of the 
grape, and especially the kinds which it is intended to 
plant. Grapes draw heavily on the available fertility in. 
the soil, and the greater the care that is given to building 
up a good rich soil before planting grapes the better they 
will respond in fruitfulness. Under general conditions, a 
clay loam which is well drained will give the best results. 

The best location is one which has a southern or east- 
ern slope, as in such positions the land is not so likely to 
be overly wet, and the dews will pass off more quickly 
than on northern slopes. This is of importance in guard- 
ing from the attacks of numerous diseases to which the 
grapes are liable. Steep hillsides are often made into 
profitable vineyards, and likewise are many pieces of flat 
land in the river bottoms. But the proper precautions 
must be taken under each condition to protect from the 
troubles both situations will bring. Steep lands are hard 
to cultivate and to get over with the spraying machinery, 
while bottom lands are both frosty and disease producing. 

Preparation of Soil 

As the grape is a strong feeder the soil should be well 
prepared before planting, especially if it is not naturally 
fertile. It is even best under average conditions to grow 
some legummous crop for a couple of years before plant- 
ing the vines in order to fill the soil with organic matter 
to improve the texture and nitrogen. When turning under 
a crop of green manure it should be turned under as deeply 
as possible and then work down smooth with a disk harrow. 
It should be remembered in setting a vineyard that it is to 
last a lifetime -and more, and like building a house the more 
solid the foundation the better will be the super structure. 
A vineyard which is well planted will be more easily cared 
for in future years and be more profitable than one which 
is put in in a hurry. 

Planting. 

On this account the ground should be rich at the time 
the vines are planted in order to give the young plants a 



214 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



good start. If manure is available, a generous amount of 
it should be worked into the soil a couple of years before 
setting the vines, as it will then become thoroughly 




At a are shown several single-eye grape cuttings, and at 
b the ordinary three-eye grape cuttings as commonly made. 



decomposed and be in better shape for the reception of 
the young plants. One-year-old vines are the most satis- 
factory, unless especially well grown two-year-old vines 
can be had. The objection that is made to two-year-old 



Planting 215 

vines by many experienced vineyardists, is that they are 
left-overs which the nurseryman has lined-out and grown 
a second, or even a third year before being able to dispose 
of them. The planting should be done as early in the 
spring as it is possible to work the soil into good condi- 
tion. 

The distance apart to set the vines varies to a great 
extent with the variety and local conditions, but for the 
Eastern and Middle Western conditions 6x8 feet apart is 
the usual distance. Where the soil is especially fertile, 
and the vines are of very strong growing varieties, the dis- 
tance should be even farther apart than this. The oper- 
ation of planting the vines goes a little slower than with 
planting tree fruits, for as a rule the roots are much 
longer and the holes must be made larger. 

Before planting, the tops should be cut back so as to 
leave only about four buds on the new growth, and the 
roots so that they are about ten inches long. This may 
take off a very large portion of the root system, but many 
small rootlets will quickly be sent out to take their place, 
and the vine will start off more quickly than if the roots 
and tops are left unpruned. In setting these young vines 
in the ground tliey must be set deep. There is little trou- 
ble from getting them too deep, as with some other kinds 
of fruit, for if the roots should be at a greater depth than 
they can grow, new roots are sent out above them, and 
the vine goes along in fine shape. 

Early spring is the best time to set the vines, although 
•it is possible to set them at any time when the plants are 
dormant and the soil in good condition. In the far North 
it is generally best to plant the vines in the spring as they 
will then not be subjected to the long period of dormancy 
on account of the ground being frozen, and the plants pre- 
vented from becoming established. In the Gulf Coast 
country it is frequently best to plant the vines in the fall, 
for the weather will be sufficiently mild during the winter 
for them to make considerable root growth before spring; 
comes, and will then be well established and ready to start 
off in fine shape. 



216 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

During the first year the vines are in their permanent 
location they will not be in need of a trellis. With many 
varieties the only support that will be needed the second 
year will be just a post to which the vines can be tied to 
keep them off the ground. By the beginning of the third 
season there should be some sort of substantial support to 
which the vines can be tied. In the home grounds an 
arbor can be made which will be very serviceable in sup- 
porting the vines and also quite ornamental. In the com- 
mercial plantation a trellis of some sort should be con- 
structed, as the vines can then be cared for in better shape, 
unless the variety is one which makes but a small amount 
of vine, as is the case with some of vinifera type. There 
are several styles of trellises used for grapes, depending 
on which of many styles of training are in use. One of 
the commonest is a two-wire trellis in which the top wire 
is about five feet from the ground, and the other at about 
three feet. For training on such a trellis only two canes 
are allowed to form and these are cut off at the top wire 
and spread out fan-shaped on the trellis wires. 

What is known as the Kniffen system has a trellis con- 
structed in about the same manner. One cane is drawn up 
to the topmost wire, where it is then cut off. At each of 
the wires two side branches are permitted to grow, and 
one is allowed to run in each direction on both wires to a 
distance about half way to the next vine. These are not 
cut off but allowed to remain as the stock from which the 
fruiting wood is to come. The fruiting wood is then 
formed on each one of these arms and drops down, so that 
tying is not a necessity. 

In the Munson system of training three wires are used, 
one wire run through the posts at about six feet from the 
ground, and the other two placed at the ends of "T" shaped 
arms. The vines are trained up from the ground to this 
wire, and two arms allowed to form, one being in each 
direction. The new canes which form each season are then 
allowed to droop over the outer wires, while the per- 
manent arms of the vine are fastened to the middle wire. 



Sex in Grapes 217 

Cultivation 

The grape responds to good cultivation, and it is im- 
portant that the vines be given good cultivation during 
the first years in the vineyard, and enabled to become well 
established, after which time the land can be put into sod 
if so desired. However, the best practice is to keep the 
vineyard in cultivation for the early portion of the season 
at least, after which time it can be sowed down to a cover 
crop of some sort. 

One of the great advantages of keeping the vineyard in 
cultivation is because this will bury many of the diseased 
berries which fall from the branches and also many of the 
leaves which contain the spores of the mildews and black 
»rot that sometimes causes such havoc in vineyards. If the 
cultivation is continued during the summer it will also assist 
in keeping the curculio in check. This is one of the in- 
sects which cause the worms in the berries of the grape. 
Whatever cultivation is given, it should extend under the 
trellis, and work up all of the soil in the row. Some- 
times it will necessitate a good thorough going ovei; 
with a hand hoe to get this portion of the soil worked up 
as thoroughly as it needs to be. 

Sex in Grapes 

Like the strawberry in some ways, there is a great 
amount of difference in the different varieties of grapes as 
to their ability of setting fruit when planted by themselves. 
Nearly every one who has wandered through the woodland 
is familiar with wild grape vines which bloom abundantly 
each spring and fill the air with their delicious fragrance, 
but which fail to set a single fruit for the fall harvest. This 
is nearly always due to the fact that the vine produces 
nothing but stamen-bearing flowers, and is totally devoid 
of the ovary or fruit-producing portion, and hence unable 
to set fruit. Other vines will be found w^hich produce an 
abundance of flowers, less conspicuous and fragrant than 
the staminate flowers, but which may or may not set fruit, 
depending on the proximity of other vines. If the flowers 



218 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



of these are observed they will be found to have a con- 
spicuous cone-shaped body in the center surrounding 
which is a row of small, withered anthers, usually bent 
down and under the cone-shaped portion. This central part 
of the flower is the pistil and ovary, from which the fruit is 
developed when the flower is properly pollinated. Still 
other wild vines will be found to have flowers which pro- 




Grapes "bag-ged" to protect them from birds and insects 
and to keep them clean. 



duce both ovaries and strong, erect stamens, and which 
are therefore called perfect flowers. These vines are able 
to set fruit without the intervention of the pollen from 
other vines. 

In the cultivated varieties the same things are found, in 
that some vines are imperfect flowered and must have sta- 
men-bearing vines planted near them in order to secure 



Pruning 219 

proper fruiting of the vines. These facts are usually well 
known to the nurserymen and prominent vineyardists, from 
whom the amateur can obtain the desired information, in 
case it is not contained in the books or catalogues to 
which he has access. Likewise the information is obtain- 
able from the experiment station authorities upon request. 

Vines which bear the imperfect flowers need to have 
planted with them the vines of other varieties known to 
produce an abundance of pollen, and which bloom at about 
the same time. 

Pruning 

The grape responds to the style of pruning and the. 
manner in which it is done more than any other cultivated 
fruit. Good grapes cannot be produced on vines which 
are not regularly and systematically pruned. Yet more 
vineyards are ruined through improper pruning than in any 
other way. Too many growers, especially those who do 
not observe the action of their vines closely enough, ex- 
pect their vines to do too much. They leave too much 
fruit-producing wood. In this way the vines continually 
. over-bear themselves, and are quickly exhausted. 

The manner of pruning will differ with different varie- 
ties. Some need to be left with long canes of fruiting 
wood, while others need to be cut back to spurs on which 
there are only a couple of buds. Some kinds will need to 
have short but strong fruiting canes left, while others will 
do best when the small, short-jointed canes are used for 
fruiting wood. 

One thing needs to be borne in mind with the usual 
kinds of grapes — that is, to keep the bearing wood close 
to the original trunk or head of the vine. The tendency is 
for the fruiting wood to get farther and farther away each 
year, and on account of this habit it is important that the 
fruit-producing canes be renewed from time to time, by 
being cut back to the stump. This will cause new shoots 
to form on the trunk, thereby renewing the fruiting wood. 
With vines which are trained on a trellis this renewal need 
not be done until the spurs or canes get out so far they 



220 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

cannot be easily handled, then it will be necessary to head 
them back, and take a fresh start. The usual systems of 
training grapes provide for this condition, and, in fact, the 
usual systems are dependent on this one thing for their 
foundation. 

Time to Prune 

The grape can be pruned at an}^ time during the dormant 
season, although it is important to do it sufficiently early 
in the spring to avoid the excessive bleeding which will 
sometimes occur. Tender varieties should be pruned in the 
fall in order that they can be bent over and covered with 
soil to prevent their becoming winter killed. Some definite 
system should be followed in the pruning, and if the 
grower is outside of a grape-growing community, it will be 
advisable to learn some system of pruning that is adapted 
to his conditions. This can be obtained from books treat- 
ing of the subject of pruning or of grape growing. 

In sections where the grape is a commercial crop the 
system of pruning which gives the best results will usually 
be pretty thoroughly -worked out, and will be the best sys- 
tem to follow. 

Raspberries 

The raspberry is one of the most popular small fruits, 
although its area of successful commercial production is 
limited to the northern half of the United States and the 
Pacific Coast. Over this area, however, it is one of the 
most popular of the bush fruits, the blackcap being the 
most extensively grown for the commercial market. This 
is on account of the soft fruits which are produced by the 
red varieties, and the ease with which such kinds are dam- 
aged in transit. 

Soils 

Soils such as are adapted to the blackberry are best for 
the raspberries. Red raspberries do better on a light soil 
than do the blackcap varieties. Soils which are very heavy, 



Propagation and Planting 



221 



or which contain large amounts of available nitrogen are 
not desirable. The latter kinds will produce an excessive 
amount of wood at the expense of the fruit. Good, strong 
loams are the most desirable. 



Propagation and Planting 

Blackcap raspberries are propagated from the rooted 
tips of the branches which form the previous summer. 




A cane from a black raspberry showing how the lateral 
branches take root at the tips, where they touch the ground. 



When these are well rooted they may be cut from the 
mother plant and used in setting the new plantation. 
Spring planting is most desirable, as the plants can start 
immediately into growth, attach their roots to the soil and 
not suffer from drying out as frequently happens when 



222 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

they are set in the fall and must remain dormant through- 
out the winter. 

Red varieties are usually propagated from suckers 
thrown up from the roots, but root cuttings may also be 
made the same as with blackberries and dewberries. Some 
varieties of the red raspberry do not make suckers very 
readily and so must be propagated from root cuttings. 

The rows need to be about six feet apart and the plants 
set four or five feet apart in the rows, if they are to be 
grown in hills. If solid rov/s are to be made, then the 
plants can go as close as two feet in the rows. The hill 
system is the most desirable where the canes must be bent 
ever for winter protection. 

Pinching and Pruning 

With the red varieties there will be no need of summer 
pinching after the first summer. The blackcaps will need 
to be pinched in the same manner as the blackberries. This 
will make them throw out strong side branches, which may 
grow out to a considerable length and take root at the tip. 
These tips can be used in enlarging the plantation, or may 
be dug cut and thrown away as, if left, they will interfere 
with cultivation. The canes of both the red and black va- 
rieties are biennial, so that all old canes should be removed 
when done fruiting. It is best to remove them as soon as 
the fruit has all been harvested, as then the entire space 
can be given over to the new canes. 

Winter Protection 

In the Northern States, where the weather becomes se- 
vere during the winter, the canes of both kinds of rasp- 
berries are killed to the ground. On this account it is 
advisable to bend the canes over and cover them with soil 
as in the case of the blackberries. This work should be 
done at a time when the canes are not frozen, as when the 
wood is frozen it is very brittle, and the canes will break 
instead of bending. 



strawberries 223 

Strawberries 

The strawberry is the most important of all of the small 
fruits, and it readily finds a place in the garden of the 
farmer, in the dooryard of the city man and in great plan- 
tations of the specialist. It is the one fruit used more ex- 
tensively than any other to plant among trees in the young 
orchards, and which the grower can depend on to make a 
profit while the young trees are coming into bearing. 

The strawberry is a cosmop'olitan fruit, and is fou.id 
under cultivation in great plantations from the Gulf of 
Mexico to northern Canada and from the Atlantic ocean to 
the Pacific coast. So widely distributed, in fact, are the 
commercial plantations of this delicious fruit that it cannot 
be said to be confined to certain "belts" of profitable com- 
mercial production, as can the apple, peach or prune. This 
character, which permits this wide adaptation, comes pos- 
sibly from the fact that its parentage is among almost a 
dozen wild species, coming from all parts of the world. 
This fact, too, has made it possible to have varieties which 
are adapted to widely differing conditions and filling a va- 
riety of needs. One may find varieties producing firm ber- 
ries that will stand shipments of some thousands of miles; 
others will be sweet and melting, and suited only to home 
markets. Other varieties will come early, and still others 
that come late. New forms are being created at the pres- 
ent time which give good promise of producing fruit 
throughout the entire summer, while still other kinds are 
being developed for forcing in the greenhouse for the mid- 
winter markets. 

As a comm_ercial fruit the strawberry is rapidly growing 
in importance, and in practically every state there are now 
large districts where this fruit is the leading horticultural 
crop, and from which train loads of the fruit are shipped 
each season. This is a development of recent years, and 
has been increased by the perfection of methods of ship- 
ping fruits under refrigeration, and by the development of 
the large commercial orcharding operations. While many 
thousands of acres are now devoted to strawberry produc- 
tion the industry dates no farther back than about 1835, 



224 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



when Hovey's Seedling was placed on the market as a 
variety that would thrive under cultivation. Up to that 
time the strawberr}?^ was known only as a wild fruit, and 
was considered to thrive only in its haunts in the wood- 
land. But with the introduction of this cultivated form 
other varieties began to appear and each year now sees 
many new varieties placed on the market for the use and 
consideration of the cultivator. 

Propagation 

The strawberry reproduces itself with considerable 
vigor, in all but a few choice varieties. This manner of 
reproducing differs from the habit of most fruit producing 
plants, in that each vigorous plant sends out a number of 




Diagram showing the manner in wliich a strawberry- 
sends out runners to reproduce itself. 



runners, which form new plants at intervals of a few 
inches. These new plants that form on the runners quickly 
attach themselves to the soil and develop root systems of 
their own. The slender straw-like runner which nurses 
them until their own roots are formed then dies, and the 
new plant in turn sends out other runners, so that from a 
small beginning a very large number of plants can be ob- 
tained in the course of one season. 

In starting a new plantation the young plants give 
greater satisfaction than do those which have produced 



Propagation 225 

a crop of fruit. It is easy to distinguish these young, 
virgin plants from old ones by the simple fact that their 
roots are numerous, come out from the crown and are pure 
white, or slightly tinged with yellow. After the plant has 
lived through one season and produced a crop of fruit these 
roots become dark brown or black, and underneath them a 
new set of roots is produced, which appear very early in 
the season as tender white roots, but which soon become 
wiry and yellowish. 

In selecting plants for propagation, such as starting a 
new plantation, care must be exercised to secure only 
those plants with the light colored roots close to the crown 
and from which there are no tough, wiry, dark colored 
roots. In this connection it is a distinct advantage to 
secure plants from those which are known to produce good 
crops of fruits. There is strong tendency on the part of 
plants to inherit more or less of the fruiting habit of their 
ancestors, and plants secured from fields which have been 
given thorough care and which have produced large crops 
of fruit, are far better to use than those from plantations 
which have been neglected and which, as a consequence, 
have produced small crops of fruit. 

In preparing to plant out a strawberry bed, it pays well 
to obtain the plants direct from the field of some grower 
who maintains a breeding bed, where the plants are grown 
primarily for the production of new plants, and from which 
the fruiting habit is well known. In case such cannot be 
done, it will pay to maintain such a patch in your own 
field where the plants can be given thorough care, and 
where each mother plant can be watched in its fruit pro- 
duction. There will be found a marked difference in the 
fruitfulness of each individual plant in a field. Some will 
make a large crop of large fruits, some will make a large 
crop of small fruits, and others may be entirely barren. 
Those plants which are least desirable in their fruiting 
habits should be chopped out of the propagation bed, so 
that their offspring will be eliminated in the future plan- 
tations. 

(8) 



226 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

Soils and Locations 

The strawberry will thvive in almost any soil and in 
almost any location. It grows thriftily in the "sandy loams 
of the South and extreme North, it grows equally well in 
the rocky clays of the Ozark Mountains, it thrives in the 
heavy clays of the Middle West, and equally as well in the 
volcanic ash of the inter-mountain valleys of the far West. 
It might be safe to say that the strawberry will thrive in 
any soil that is not a clean dry sand or water-logged peat 
or clay, and any soil that will produce good crops of any 
of the ordinary garden vegetables will be adapted to the 
strawberry. It is likewise adapted to any location as re- 
gards the exposure to the sun and prevailing winds. And 
there are varieties and strains of varieties which are 
adapted to locations in the Southern states or Northern 
states, and to the Atlantic coast sections as well as Cali- 
fornia and the Puget Sound country. 

But whatever the soil or location the strawberry will do 
its best in proportion to the amount of available fertility 
in the soil upon which it is growing. The soil need not be 
especially deep, as the strawberry is a shallow rooting crop, 
but it does need to be abundantly fertile. Any additional 
care that is taken to enrich the soil before planting out a 
strawberry bed will be well repaid with the increased 
amount of fruit which it will produce. On this account it 
is frequently advised that the plants are most productive 
on new lands. Lands from which the native timber has 
just been removed, and in which there is an abundant sup- 
ply of leaf mould to be turned under, is usually considered 
the best for strawberries. But this is no doubt only be- 
cause the natural fertility of such soils has not been ex- 
hausted by over cropping. It is a well known fact that old 
fields which have been in cultivation for many years can, 
with proper care in fertilizing and preparing the ground, 
be made to produce as large and fine crops of berries as 
the virgin fields. 

The choice of slope on which a plantation is to be made 
depends upon the objects to be sought. A southern slope 
is usually warmer and produces earlier berries, while one 



Preparing the Land 227 

sloping to the north will be later and the berries will be 
slightly less highly colored. In those sections where the 
summers are hot and dry it will be an advantage to use 
the northern slopes for the strawberry plantation, on ac- 
count of the greater moisture which will be retained in the 
soils of such locations. But if means are at hand for irri- 
gating the plantations such differences are of little value. 
The strawberry needs an abundant supply of moisture 
throughout the entire growing season. This is because of 
its shallow rooting habit. In dry summers it is not infre- 
quent to find the strawberry plants in a dormant condi- 
tion and most of the foliage dead by midsummer, only to 
revive and possibly produce a second crop of fruit after 
the late summer rains soak up the soil. 

In the fall of 1910 this character prevailed over the 
greater portion of the country east of the Rocky Moun- 
tains. The early portion of the summer was dry and in 
August an abundance of rain came, soaking up the soil and 
putting new life into the strawberry fields, with the result 
that in September and October many persons were har- 
vesting a second crop of berries, which were practically as 
good as the early spring crop. In the irrigated sections 
of the West many berry growers make a specialty of ob- 
taining a second crop of berries, which they can do with 
ease when they understand how to handle the irrigation 
water and throw the plants into a dormant condition early 
in the summer. Then by applying the water again after 
the plants have had a short rest, they will immediately 
come into bloom and produce j\ second crop. In the mild 
climate of California, where strawberries can be kept in 
growing condition throughout the entire year, crops of 
fruit can be had almost every day. 

Preparing the Land 

Because of the adaptability of the strawberry to a va- 
riety of conditions it will grow and produce remarkably 
good crops in soils which have been given very poor prep- 
aration. But like every other cultivated crop it responds to 
good cultivation, and when the soil is put in the best pos- 



228 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

sible condition the strawberry will produce its best and 
most profitable crops. 

In the preparation of the land the drainage of the soil 
needs to be considered, for if not naturally well drained 
tile should be put in so as to prevent water standing on the 
land and to promote the aeration of the soil. But if drain- 
ing is not a necessity, the question of fertility of the soil 
will be of first importance. Barnyard manure is by far 
the best fertilizer to apply to land which is to be planted 
to strawberries. This is so because it not only adds to 
the elements of fertility, but it also adds organic matter 
that will be converted into humus to improve the tilth of 
the soil, and promote a better general physical condition. 
This manure should be applied as fast as it is made, as 
then it contains the maximum of fertility and will be more 
nearly free from the white grub, which causes such serious 
damage to strawberry beds by eating off the roots of the 
plants. 

The amount of manure which needs to be applied to 
the soil will depend on the general fertility, but ten or fif- 
teen big wagon loads to each acre will not be too much for 
the average land. Distribute the manure with a manure 
spreader, as then it will be applied in a thin, even coat over 
the land, and can be applied more quickly than by any 
other means. But in cases where an abundance of stable 
manure is not available, soil improving crops handled in 
the best manner for improving the fertility and texture of 
soils will be most suitable, and in connection with them it 
may be necessary to add small amounts of potash and 
phosphorous as the local conditions may warrant. 

The manure or cover crops should be plowed under as 
earl}'- in the spring as the soil can be worked, care being 
exercised to secure a uniform depth throughout. On this 
account a riding plow will serve a better purpose in most 
localities than the usual walking plow, and especially in 
the hands of an inexperienced plowman. The depth to 
which the land should be plowed will depend on the gen- 
eral nature of the soil. In soils which are naturally deep, 
the plowing can be done deeper than in shallow soils, 



Time to Plant 229 

running as much as eight inches. But where the soils are 
shallow, it may be necessary to plow only half that deep. 
In this plowing, when manure has been added or crops 
turned under, the land needs to be turned completely over 
and then disced and harrowed so as to thoroughly incor- 
porate the manure with the plowed ground. This will 
make the soil spongy, light and friable, so that the plant 
roots can penetrate to all parts of it and it will maintain 
a more even temperature around the roots than in a com- 
pact soil. 

Rolling the land is sometimes a necessity and espe- 
cially on soils which are naturally very heavy. On light 
soils such as sandy-loam clays, rolling may not be a neces- 
sity, although if it is lumpy rolling may be an advantage. 
The purpose of the rolling is to not only break the lumps, 
but to compact the soil so that the roots can quickly attach 
themselves. Rolling compacts the soil and prevents exces- 
sive aeration, which is possible in very light soils. Aeration 
not only dries out the roots, but it has a decided influence 
on the development and action of the soil bacteria and the 
liberation of fertility. 

Time to Plant 

The time to plant the berries depends a great deal on 
where one is located. In the South planting may be done 
to best advantage in the fall or early winter months. In 
the Middle West it can be done at any time when the soil 
is not too dry or frozen, while in the North spring plant- 
ing will give the best results. The time to plant will de- 
pend on the season of the year at which the plants will 
most quickly take hold of the soil and become established. 
A strawberry plant is somewhat like a potato. In the fall 
it has stored up in its roots and crown a considerable quan- 
tity of food material that can be drawn upon to maintain 
itself when conditions otherwise may make it impossible to 
obtain such material from the soil. 

Because of this one m.ay ask why it is not just as well 
to set the plants as soon as they become dormant in the 
fall. As a matter of fact, plants do not become dormant 



230 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



until the ground freezes so hard that it is impossible for the 
plant to obtain any nourishment on account of its having 
frozen solid. For this reason fall set plants in the North 
may not have time to form new roots before the ground 
freezes and may as a consequence dry out and perish 
during the winter. 




A fine bunch of strawberry plants for setting out. 



Planting 

Just before one is ready to plant, the soil should be 
gone over and worked down as smooth as can be with a 
harrow and this, followed with a drag, that will leave it 
perfectly smooth. Across this then mark off the row either 
with a cord or by drawing a board having pegs driven 
through in the position each row is to occupy, and so as to 



Systems in Planting 231 

scratch lines across the field in which the berries are to 
be set. 

Where transplanting machines, such as are used in some 
of the trucking districts, can be had, they may be used for 
transplanting strawberries and are a decided advantage 
in many respects. But the one great fault with the ma- 
chines is that one cannot always set the plants at the 
proper depth. The strawberry needs to be set at the depth 
which will allow the crown of the plant to be flush with 
the surface of the land, neither too deep or too high. If 
set too deep, the crown will fill with soil and rot if the 
weather is wet. If set too high, the roots will be exposed 
to the sun and air, drying out or weakening the plant. 

The best way to set strawberries is to get right down 
on one's hands and knees and "go to it." If one pads the 
knees with a good bunch of old sacking the work can be 
done wnth greater convenience. Where a machine carrying 
two men is used it is possible to set 8,000 plants in a day, 
and where setting by hand a good workman can set as 
many as 1,500 or even 2,000 plants in ten hours. 

A dibble is necessary for making the holes in hand- 
setting, and one which is flat is better than a round one. 
With it a hole can be made that will allow the roots to be 
spread out flat, in a fan shape, and all of them come in 
contact with the soil. The dibble should be grasped in the 
right hand, thrust into the soil, and given an outward shove 
so as to make an opening behind it. The left hand then 
grasps the plant, shakes the roots out loosely and shoves 
them carefully into the hole so that the crown comes ex- 
actly at the surface. The dibble is then withdrawn and 
inserted again a couple of inches away from the plant and 
the soil pulled up against the roots. A little experience 
soon teaches one to know how to do the work quickly. 



Systems in Planting 

There are three systems of planting or training, the hill, 
hedge row and matted row. Each has its advantages and 



232 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



disadvantages, and the method to adopt will depend on the 
conditions under which one must work. 

The hill system consists in growing the plants in indi- 
vidual hills or stools, only one plant in a place. Such a 
practice makes a lot of hand work necessary and limits 
the size of the field. There are several ways of growing 




Characteristic appearance of an old strawberry plant, not 
suitable for planting. Black, wiry roots at the bottom and 
new roots above them. 



Winter Protection 233 

berries in hills, but they all resolve into the matter of keep- 
ing all of the runners off the plants and making all of the 
strength of the plant go into the development of one big 
fruit producing plant. 

The hedge row is more popular than the hill system, as 
it entails a smaller amount of labor and enables one to set 
the rows closer together. In this system each mother plant 
is allowed to make two runners and these are trained in 
the row, one going on one side and the second on the other 
side. When the plants are set from three to three and one- 
half feet apart and two feet in the row, they should stand 
about six inches apart in the rows after the runners are 
layered. 

This system can be elaborated upon a little by what is 
sometimes called the "double" hedge row. This is essen- 
tially the same as the hedge row except that the rows are 
wider, although there should be fully six inches of space 
around each plant in the rows. This system is believed 
by careful observers to produce the maximum amount of 
large fruit that it is possible to get from a field. But the 
system entails a great amount of hand work, a greater 
amount, in fact, than the average man can give his fields 
where a large area is in berries. 

The matted rows are most popular among the general 
commercial producers. The plants are set in rows about 
three or three and one-half feet apart and about two and 
one-half feet apart in the row. The plants are then al- 
lowed to grow and make as many runners as they can to 
fill up a row about a foot and a. half wide. Beyond this 
the runners are kept cut off by a little attachment that is 
placed on the sides of the cultivator. 

Winter Protection 

Whether winter protection, or mulching, is used will 
depend largely on one's location. When a mulch is. applied 
it may be done for any one or all of three reasons; first, 
t(; keep the soil cool and moist during the season; second, 
to keep the berries free from dirt during the spring rams, 
and third, to afford winter protection. In the Northern 



234 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

sections the mulch is applied in the fall as soon as the 
ground freezes, in which case it serves all three purposes, 
but in the South, where winter protection is not needed, it 
may not be applied until in the spring, for the purpose of 
keeping the berries clean. In the most of the Western 
sections a mulch is not used at all, as it is not needed dur- 
ing the winter. Since rains seldom interfere at the time 
the crop is ripening a straw mulch is not necessary to keep 
the berries from becoming spattered. 

Where a mulch is needed, straw serves the best pur- 
pose, although it is open to the objection of introducing 
seeds of the grain and various kinds of weeds, which may 
cause serious trouble in the field. 

Where the mulch is applied for a winter protection it 
need not go on until the ground has frozen, as it is not 
the object of the mulch to keep the ground from freezing 
but to prevent the alternation of freezing and thawing sev- 
eral times during the winter. The dressing should be ap- 
plied at the rate of a couple or three tons of good straw 
spread evenly over the rows of plants. In the spring 
this mulch will be so well water soaked from the effects 
of the winter snows and rains that it will rest heavily on 
the plants. When the plants give signs of renewing their 
activities it is necessary to draw the mulch from over the 
berries, leaving it close iip to the sides of the rows where 
it will keep the rains from spattering dirt on the ripening 
fruit. 

Renewing 

Strawberry fields will not be profitable producers after 
they have made two crops. This is because the land will 
be more or less choked with the plants and new plants 
cannot obtain a place to grow and develop, so that the field 
needs to be renewed. There are a number of ways in 
which this can be done but one of the simplest and most 
effective means is to plow out the spaces between the 
rows, leaving a strip in the middle about six inches wide. 
Turn the soil away from the rows, back-furrowing 
towards the middle. Then make a liberal application 
of manure, throwing the most of it into the fur- 



Sex in Strawberries 235 

row on each side of the row of plants. Work the soil back 
into the furrow with a one-horse cultivator or with a disc 
from which the inner discs have been removed. Then go 
over the field with a hoe and cut out the old plants, work 
under the old foliage and leave the remaining plants stand- 
ing about six inches apart. With such treatment as this 
the field will be in fair condition to produce at least one 
more profitable crop and possibly two crops. By the time 
the field has been in strawberries long enough to produce 
three or four crops of berries it will have exhausted the 
fertility of the soil or it will have become so toxic to the 
roots that the successful cultivation can not be continued 
without putting the land into other crops for at least two 
years. Should it be the intention of returning the same 
field to strawberry production, these crops should be of 
such kinds as will increase the fertility of the land rather 
than to produce a large immediate cash return. For this 
reason crops of some legume, such as clover, cow peas, 
vetch or crimson clover are the best, and the tops should 
not be mowed but turned under to add to the humus sup- 
ply. 

Another method is to plow a furrow down each side of 
the row turning the soil into the middle and then work 
it back with a spike tooth harrow with the teeth 
thrown slightly back. This will drag out some of the 
plants in the rows, pull out the old matted foliage and 
bury most of the crowns of the plants. The object of this 
is to encourage the plants to send out a new secondary 
crown and a new lot of roots all above the old crown. As 
soon as the new plants have begun to appear the field 
should be worked over with a hoe and the plants thinned 
out and culled, leaving only the most vigorous. This work 
is or should be done immediately after the fruit crop has 
been gathered, as the plants will then have the remainder 
of the summer to build up new plants to produce the crop 
of fruit for the next summer. 

Sex in Strawberries 

Many persons who are inexperienced in the growing of 
strawberries find that when their first planting comes into 



236 



The Fru it-Growers Guide-Book 



producing age that it may blossom very freely but fail to 
produce a single fruit. The reason for it is that the flow- 
ers were not "fertilized" or pollinated. Some varieties of 
strawberries do not produce pollen; they are provided only 
with pistils, or the female organs of reproduction and must 
be pollinated by the pollen from varieties which have per- 
fect or pollen-producing flowers. Varieties like Excelsior, 
Klondike or Aroma have perfect flowers and are capable 
of setting fruit when planted alone, but other varieties 



n'^Ct'^^ 




pisfi'^ 




strawberry flowers; one on the left is "staminate" or 
pollen producing; one on the right is imperfect and bears no 
stamens. It must be planted with a staminate variety before 
it will be fruitful. 



such as Warfield, Bubach, Haverland or Sample are pis- 
tillate, or have imperfect flowers and cannot set fruit them- 
selves. If one obtains plants from any of the reliable deal- 
ers the sex of the plants will be marked in the catalogue, 
and one can thereby guard against getting all pistillate 
plants. Otherwise one will have to inquire from persons 
who know whether their plants produce perfect flowers. 



Varieties 237 

It is when the plants come into bloom that anyone can 
tell whether the flowers of a given variety of strawberry 
are perfect or imperfect. The "staminate," "male" or per- 
fect flowered kinds will be found to have a number of yel- 
low or greenish yellow bodies on little short stems sur- 
rounding a central green, cone-shaped body, which can be 
readily recognized as an immature strawberry. These yel- 
low bodies are the "anthers" or pollen producing organs, 
'and such flowers are able to produce fruit without the ne- 
cessity of mating them wnth other kinds. But those flow- 
ers from which the anthers are missing must be planted 
close to pollen-producing kinds before there will be any 
fruit produced. 

Many of the most desirable varieties of strawberries 
produce these imperfect flowers, so that to get a crop of 
fruit they must be mated with some kind which will pro- 
duce an ample supply of pollen for itself and for the im- 
perfect flowered kind. In setting out such a plantation it 
is found satisfactory to plant one row of the perfect flow- 
ered kind and two rows of the imperfect. In this way 
there will be one row of staminate plants between two rows 
of imperfect flowered varieties. The pollen which is pro- 
duced by the stamen bearing flowers will be carried to 
the non-staminate kind by insects which visit the flowers. 
The common honey bee is the most industrious in perform- 
ing this valuable work, although a number of flies and 
other kinds of insects no doubt help out. On warm days 
the wind may also help out in carrying the pollen, as some 
of it is undoubtedly blown from plant to plant and row to 
row, but in order to obtain the best results with pistillate 
varieties it is essential that the pollen-producing sort be 
one that blossoms at the same time as the staminate kind. 

Varieties 

The question as to what kind of strawberries to plant 
is not easily answered, so far as the home garden is con- 
cerned, although it is somewhat easier for the commer- 
cial plantation. In the catalogue of every dealer in straw- 
berry plants there is a long list of varieties with tempting 



238 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



descriptions of the delicious fruits that makes one want to 
plant every kind listed. In the home grounds it is well 
worth while having a list of several varieties, so selected 
that one can have strawberries from the beginning of the 




Wide, matted rows, in a productive field. 



season until its very close, and when the everbearing va- 
rieties have been well enough developed so that one can 
with certainty get a second crop each year, then those 
kinds should be included. It is well worth the while to 



Canning Fruits and Vegetables at Home 239 

have several varieties in the home ground and to try some 
of the newer varieties which are being introduced from 
time to time, as they add to the interest of growing the 
fruit, even though that particular variety may not do so 
very well. 

For the commercial grower, and particularly the grower 
in sections where there are successful strawberry planta- 
tions, it is best to adopt those kinds which are known to 
be a success in that particular section, and on the same 
kind of soil. In all of the large berry growing districts 
some one or two berries are grown more extensively than 
other kinds. For example, in the Southern states Klon- 
dike and Texas are the leading varieties. In the Ozark 
region of Missoui: and Arkansas Aroma is most exten- 
sively used, while in the Pacific Northwest Clark's Seedling 
is the leading commercial variety. In every section, how- 
ever, there are a great number of other kinds, although 
there will usually be one or possibly two leading sorts. 

Every commercial berry grower should have a trial 
grounds on which he can test new varieties. Some kind 
quite different from what he is growing may produce great- 
er quantities of fruit, or be otherwise more desirable. It 
is not necessary that such grounds be very large, for a 
little bed a rod or so square may be ample for trying out 
two or three new sorts each year, and once a start is ob- 
tained it is easily possible to increase the number of plants 
if one is so inclined. 

Canning Fruits and Vegetables at Home 

Saving a Waste 

Canning fruits and vegetables on the farm is one way 
of saving what might otherwise be a large and extrava- 
gant waste. In nearly every fruit and truck growing sec- 
tion there is always some fruit or vegetable, in large or 
small amounts, which cannot be sold at a profit while fresh. 
When this is placed in cans and properly sterilized, sealed 
and labeled, it can be sold in the market at a profit above 
what it would have had it been sold fresh. 



240 The Fru it-Growers Guide-Book 

On the average farm an abundance of fruits and vege- 
tables can be had during the summer season, but when 
winter comes these delicious and wholesome products are 
absent from the family table. If they are present it too 
often happens that they have been obtained from a store 
in the nearest town. These goods are often very poor sub- 
stitutes for the products which can be canned at home, 
and especially when the cheaper grades are purchased. 
The average farmer frequently dries fruits, and possibly 
also some kinds of vegetables for winter use, but aside 
from these there is little for the home table and nothing, 
for the market. This is largely for the reason that they 
believe it is impossible or difficult to can fruits and vege- 
tables in such a way that they will keep in perfect condi- 
tion without the use of mysterious chemicals or elaborate 
and expensive canning machinery. This is a mistake, for 
it is just as easy to can vegetables such as corn, peas and 
beans as it is to can peaches, plums or cherries. 

Every fruit and vegetable grower has had the experience 
of trying to sell produce at a profit when the market was 
so glutted that a price sufficient to pay for hauling to town 
could hardly be obtained. This is especially the case when 
the produce was being placed on the local markets. It is 
under such conditions as this that it pays and pays well to 
have a little canning outfit and put up the produce in tin or 
glass cans to be sold during the winter months. Outfits can 
be had which will fit the needs of anyone who wants to can 
either vegetables or fruits, and in any capacity from a 
dozen cans to several hundred cans a day. The process 
is simple, and one which can be done b}^ any farmer or 
farmer's wife. 

There is only one secret to the commercial canning pro- 
cess. It is nothing mysterious or difficult, as so many per- 
sons believe. It is simply the careful observance of clean- 
liness and thorough sterilization of every can. Nothing 
more enters into the secret of canning. It takes no chem- 
icals whatever, and the process is so simple that it can be 
done with success in any kitchen, or even out of doors 
under the shade of a tree. On account of the simplicity 



Canning Fruits and Vegetables at Home 



241 



of the process there is no reason for a farmer hauling his 
vegetables or fruit to the railroad and shipping to a dis- 
tant canning factory, as then the farmer does most of the 
work and the cannery gets the money. By canning the 
vegetables at home the farmer can sell his finished product 
at the same price as the large canner and make a profit on 
his goods. If shipped to a cannery this profit would have 
been divided between the transportation company, the 
canner, the jobber and sometimes even the retailer. 




A portable canning outfit is liandy for liome use. 



Cleanliness is of first importance in canning, as filth of 
all kinds is full of germs of disease and organisms which 
render it difficult to make the product "keep" after it is 
canned. It is essential and almost indispensable that an 
abundance of clean, pure water be available in the kitchen 
or building in which the canning is being done, and so 
much more convenient if this water is under pressure and 



242 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

obtained by simply opening a valve. All of the produce 
can then be washed free from any dust that may be cling- 
ing to it and can also be more readily cleaned of any spots 
of rot which may be on it. To have the fruit perfectly 
clean and to handle it with clean tools and put it in clean 
cans and sterilize in clean vessels makes the operation of 
canning very much easier and safer than if the cleanliness 
is neglected. Perfectly clean products will sell for a better "^ 
price than that which is put up in a shiftless, "don't care" 
fashion. 

Sterilization 

The reason for so much fruit spoiling after it is canned 
is due entirely to the lack of perfect sterilization of the 
cans after being filled. Some products can be placed in 
cans and sterilized by cooking for just a few minutes while 
others may require prolonged cooking. This cooking is 
done for the purpose of destroying the organisms which 
cause the products to "spoil." These organisms are of 
various kinds. Some of them are the common moulds, 
some are yeasts quite similar to the yeast which causes 
bread to "rise," while still others are of the minute forms 
of life called "bacteria." All of these organisms are present 
everywhere all of the time, and when fruits and vegetables 
are harvested and prepared for market, or canning, they 
are completely covered with these extremely minute forms 
of life. 

These organisms can be killed by heat. On this prin- 
ciple rests the foundation of the canning business. As 
soon as one learns how to cook their produce in air tight 
vessels so that all of these organisms are killed, then the 
contents of the can will keep in perfect condition until air 
containing the spores of these organisms is admitted. Per- 
fect sterilization can be had by enclosing the produce in 
clean jars or cans and then submitting them to heat of 
sufficient temperature for a long enough time to destroy 
all of these organisms. Sterilization is readily accom- 
plished by the use of boiling water. In localities where 
water boils at nearly 212 degrees Fahrenheit most of the 



Processing 243 

ordinary forms of ferment organisms are killed at the boil- 
ing point of water. But the spores or resting stage of 
these organisms will not be killed at that temperature, so 
that it is necessary to do one or all of three things: in- 
crease the length of time of the cooking process, increase 
the boiling point by increasing the steam pressure, or by 
repeated cooking and cooling. In the ordinary process of 
boiling some kinds of organisms may not be killed by be- 
ing subjected to that temperature for just a few minutes, 
whereas if the temperature is maintained for some time 
they are killed. 

Boiling Repeatedly 

By boiling, all of the living organisms will be killed and 
then by allowing the product to cool, an}'- of the spores 
vvhich remain will germinate, so that a second boiling in 
the course of twenty-four hours will kill the second crop 
and leave the contents in practically a sterile condition, al- 
though a third boiling may be necessary to make absolutely 
certain. Repeated boilings in this manner are hardly nec- 
essary with the usual forms of garden produce when the 
boiling point of water is nearly 212 degrees. But when 
the boiling point falls as low as 205 degrees or less, as it 
does at high altitudes, then the repeated boiling is neces- 
sary unless the cooking can be done in a steam tight vessel 
where the steam pressure can be increased, or else by 
keeping the produce at the boiling point a number of hours. 

Processing 

This cooking through which the produce must go in 
order to make it keep is known among canners as "pro- 
cessing," although its only meaning is thorough cooking 
in order to destroy all germs of fermentation and decay. 

This work can be very effectually done in open kettles 
in the home or small factory, although for rapid work and 
in large establishments it is an advantage for some kinds 
of produce to have steam tight compartments in which the 
sterilization can be done at a temperature higher than the 
boiling point of water in an open vessel. 



244 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

Home Outfits Are Simple 

The canning machinery which is on the market for the 
use of farmers and persons who expect to pack only a 
small amount of produce are very simple. They consist 
of a heating device, usually a sheet iron stove or furnace, 
on which is a tank of water. Into this tank is immersed 
a frame-like affair holding the filled cans during the cook- 
ing process. Such simple outfits as these can be purchased 
for amounts as lo^^^ as $10, while twice that amount will 
buy a very good outfit for canning on a small commercial 
basis. 

Accessories 

In addition to a means of cooking, or processing the 
produce, there are a few small tools which will be needed, 
especially if the canning is done in ordinary tins. These 
are a capping iron, which is a curved piece of iron for 
soldering the cap on the cans; and a tipping copper for 
soldering up the hole in the cap which is left for the escape 
of the air while the cans are being exhausted. There will 
need to be a supply of sal amoniac and soldering fluid, to 
make it possible to solder the cans. The sal amoniac can 
be bought of the druggist, while the soldering fluid can be 
made at home by dissolving in muriatic acid all of the zinc 
it will take. 

Definitions 

Capping is a term applied to the operation of soldering 
the cap onto the can. The cap is a little circular piece of 
tin rimmed with solder which fits over the hole in the top^ 
of the can. In capping, the rim of the can into which the 
cap fits must be absolutely clean and dry. The contents 
of the can must not be closer than a quarter of an inch of 
the top, as the cap must not be soldered on if the contents 
touch the lid. Put the cap in place and brush a little of 
the soldering fluid around the edge. When the capping 
copper is passed around the cap the solder around its edge 
will be melted and secure it to the can. 

Tipping consists in closing the little hole in the center 
of the cap. This is done with the tipping copper, and the 



Directions for Processing Asparagus 245 

lid must be wiped perfectly dry and clean and then wet 
with a little of the acid flux. Touch the hot copper to a 
bit of solder and then place the melted drop over the hole 
and the job is done. Tipping is not done until after the 
air in the cans has been exhausted by a preliminary boil- 
ing. 

As soon as the cans are filled with the produce they are 
to contain they are capped and placed in the upper part of 
the process tank submerged two-thirds their depth in 
water. Here they are maintained for a sufficient length of 
time to thoroughly heat the contents to near the boil- 
ing point and expel most of the air in the can. There 
should be an air space of a quarter or half an inch 
in each of the cans to allow for the expansion of the 
produce as it is being processed and to prevent the con- 
tents touching the top and making trouble with the solder- 
ing that must be done. As soon as the cans are removed 
from the exhaust they are tipped and are ready for the pro- 
cessing operation. In this the cans are immersed com- 
pletely in the boiling water, and if the tipping or capping 
has not been thoroughly done, there will be a little stream 
of bubbles rise through the lid. Those cans which leak 
must be removed immediately and the hole effectually 
closed before the processing can be done satisfactorily. 
If the cans are perfectly air-tight the ends will be some- 
what bulged after the processing is finished, on account of 
the expansion of the contents, but as soon as cooled down 
the ends will be flat. 

Blanching is necessary in the canning of some kinds of 
vegetables and consists in doing what the housewife calls 
"par boiling." Where this is necessary the blanching should 
be done in a separate tank from that used for processing. 
In a small factory or the home canning plant a large new 
wash boiler makes the best sort of vessel for this purpose. 

Directions for Processing Asparagus 

This is the first vegetable of the season to be canned. 
Cut it as for the market, having the stalks just a little 



246 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

shorter than will fill the cans. Wash it perfectly clean 
and pack firmly in the cans, placing the tips all one way. 
Asparagus cans are usually made square instead of round 
and open on the side. This is for convenience in filling. 
Exhaust 10 or 15 minutes and process for 20 or 30 minutes. 

Beets 

Small sized beets are the best. Young, tender ones an 
inch or less in diameter, with the tops rem.oved, should be 
par boiled until the skin slips off. Remove all of the skin 
and pack firmly in cans. Cover with water, exhaust and 
process for an hour. 

Lima Beans 

These must be carefully hulled by hand and all dam- 
aged beans should be culled out. Pack only those which 
are perfect in shape and not too ripe. They loose their 
flavor quickly after being shelled and on that account need 
to be packed immediately after shelling. Pack the cans 
within a half or three-fourths of an inch of the top as the 
beans swell some; cover with water, exhaust ten minutes 
and process for forty-five minutes. 

Green or Wax Beans 

String beans will need to have the strings removed. 
All kinds must have the tips and stems cut off and the 
pods broken into halves or smaller pieces. Gather the 
beans while they are quite young so that they Avill be ten- 
der. String beans must be blanched for ten or fifteen 
minutes. Pack them tightly into the cans within half or 
three-fourths of an inch of the top, cover with water and 
exhaust. The processing will need to cover a period of an 
hour of hard boiling. It must be done very thoroughly as 
beans spoil very easily unless perfectly sterilized. 

Corn 

Most persons have difficulty in canning corn so that 
it will keep. When perfectly sterilized it keeps as well as 



Pumpkin and Squash 247 

any vegetable. The most certain way to make a success of 
canning corn is to process three times, letting the cans 
stand and cool for twenty-four hours between each cook- 
ing. The corn must be in a milky stage. Cut the grains 
©ff the cob, scrape the cob lightly with the back of the 
knife so as to get all of the milky portion. Pack into cans 
v/ithin three-fourths of an inch of the top and fill nearly 
full of water. Exhaust for fifteen minutes. Let cool for 
twenty-four hours and process again. Let cool over night 
and give a third boiling of half an hour, and it will keep 
perfectly. 

Blackberries 

Fruit should be ripe, but not so soft that it will mash 
when handled. Remove all stems. Pack firmly without 
crushing. Cover the berries with water, add sugar if de- 
sired; exhaust for three minutes, process for ten minutes. 



Cherries 

These-fruits can be quickly pitted with a machine. Pack 
solidly in syrup or water as desired, in two-pound cans. 
Exhaust seven minutes and process for twenty minutes. 



Peas 

Shell tender young peas and screen so as to grade into 
different sizes before packing. Blanch for five minutes, 
pouring them into boiling water. Remove and pack firmly 
into cans. Cover with water; exhaust for fifteen minutes 
and process for one hour. Greatest success may be had 
by allowing to cool for twenty-four hours and then repeat 
the processing. 

Pumpkin and Squash 

Prepare as for immediate use. Cook until nearly done 
in an open vessel, then pack in cans. Exhaust for ten 
minutes and process for forty minutes. 



248 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

Peaches 

Use firm, solid fruit that is not too ripe. Peel, cnt into 
halves and remove the stones. Pack firmly in the cans> ^i\d 
cover with syrup or water as desired. Exhaust for five 
minutes, process for fifteen minutes. The best grade of 
fruit must be unbroken halves. They may be packed in 
two, three or ten-pound cans. Pie peaches are usually 
packed in the larger sizes of cans. 

Raspberries 
These are handled in the same manner as blackberries. 

Tomatoes 

These have become the most popular of all kinds of 
canned vegetables and afford an excellent means of bring- 
ing in an income while the orchard is maturing. Stone 
is the best variety, as the fruit retains its deep red color 
during the processing better than most any other variety. 
The fruit needs to be clean, firm and well colored. Scald 
with boiling water until the skin will slip easily. Remove 
the skins and cut out the hard stem end, being careful to 
not mash the fruit in handling. Save all of the juice that 
runs out of the cans. Cover with juice or water if neces- 
sary. Exhaust eight minutes and sterilize for half an hour. 
Do not allow the fruit to stand after being scalded, as it 
spoils very quickly. 

Varieties of Apples, Peaches, Pears, Grapes to Plant 

The following list of varieties of fruits are from data 
collected by the horticulturists of the states named and 
are varieties which are considered as the best for com- 
mercial plantings in the states named: 

Alabama 

Apples — Red June, Red Astrachan. Early Harvest, Fam- 
ily, Winesap, Yellow Transparent, Horse, Yates, Terry. 



Best Commercial Varieties 249 

Grapes — Bunch: Delaware, Niagara, Concord; Musca- 
dine type: Eden, Memory, Scuppernong. 

Peaches — Greensboro, Carman, Hiley, Family Favorite, 
Belle, Elberta, Salway, White Heath. 

Pear — Kieffer. 

Arkansas 

Peaches — Sneed Triumph, Carman, Family Favorite, 
Early Crawford, Champion, Gen'l Lee, Elberta, Mixon, 
Late Crawford Emma, Matthews, Beauty, Picquet's Late, 
Heath Cling, Salway, Slappy, Early Elberta. 

California 

Apples — Newtown, Bellflower, Gravenstein, R. L Green- 
ing, E. Spitzenburg, Mo. Pippin, Astrachan, Red June. 

Grapes — Muscat, Tokay, Cornichon, Thompson, Em- 
peror, Malaga, Rose of Peru, Zinfandel, Sweet Water, 
Verdal, Carignane, Black Prince, Alicante, Sultina. 

Peaches — Muir, Phillips, Salway, Lovell, E. Crawford, 
Tuskena, Foster, Elberta, Nichols, Sellers, Lemon, St. 
Johns, Henrietta, Mary's Choice, Hale, Alexander. 

Pears — Winter Nelis, Seckel, Easter, Du Cornice, Doy- 
enne, D'Ete, Clapp's Favorite, Glout Morceau, Barry 
Comet. 

Colorado 

Apples — Jonathan, Gano, Stayman, Winesap, Grimes, 
Colorado Orange, Wealthy, Duchess, Hass, Rome Beauty, 
Mamomth Black Twig, White Winter Pearmain, Black 
Ben. 

Grapes — Concord, Moore's Early, Niagara. 

Pears — Bartlett, Kieffer, Seckel. 

Peaches — Crawford, Elberta. 

Iowa 

Apples — Yellow Transparent, Liveland Raspberry, 
Charlamoff, Wealthy, Anisim, Flutchins Red, Salome, 




a 

3 
O 
o 

0) 

•M 



Best Commercial Varieties 251 

Windsor, Iowa Blush, Tolman Sweet, Allen Choice, Stay- 
man, Delicious, Ben Davis, Gano, Grimes, Jonathan, Wine- 
sap, York Imperial. 

Pears — Fluke, Bloodgood, Flemish Beauty, Seckel, 
Warner, Anjou, Kieffer, Longworth. 

Peaches — Sneed, Champion, Crosby, Hill Chilli, Russel, 
Lone Tree, Greensboro. 

Michigan 

Apples — Red Astrachan, Duchess, Wealthy, Baldwin, 
Golden Russet, Red Canada. Wagener, Grimes, Hubbard- 
ston, Jonathan, Maiden's Blush. 

Grapes — Brighton, Diamond, Niagara, Delaware, Wor- 
den. Concord, Moore. 

Pears — Lawrence, Kieffer, Anjou, Seckel, Howell, Bart- 
let, Clapp's. 

Peaches — Triumph, Kalamazoo, Elberta, Engle, Dewey. 
Minnesota 

Apples — Duchess, Hibernal, Charlamoff, Patten's Green- 
ing, Wealthy, Longfield, Tetofsky, Malinda, Okabena, 
Peerless, Wolf River, McMahon, Yellow Transparent. 

Grapes — Beta, Janesville, Moore's Early, Brighton, Del- 
aware, Worden, Agawam, Concord, Diamond. 

Missouri 

Apples — Ben Davis, Jonathan, Grimes, Huntsman, York, 
Winesap, Rome Beauty, Delicious, Wealthy, Early Har- 
vest, Yellow Transparent, Ingram, Delicious, Black Ben, 
Gano, Stayman. 

Peaches — Champion, Carman, Family Favorite, Elberta, 
Crosby, Salway. 

Pears — Kieffer, Garber, Duchess, Anjou, Clapp's Favor- 
ite. 

New York 

Apples — Gravenstein, Oldenburg, Mcintosh, Boiken, 
Northern Spy, Spitzenburg. 



252 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

Pears — Washington, Lawrence, Anjou, Bartlett. 
Peaches — Carman, Mountain Rose, Crawford, Mamie 
Ross, Elberta, Salway, Greensboro. 

Northern New England 

Apples — Oldenburg, Gravenstein, Baldwin Spy, Hub- 
bardston, Stark, Tohiian, Fameuse, Wealthy, Dudley. 

Pears — Angouleme, Anjou, Bartlett, Clapp's, Lawrence, 
Sheldon, Vermont Beauty. 

New Jersey 

Apples — Early Harvest, Early Ripe, Red Astrachan, 
William's, Starr, Rambo, Wealthy, Maiden's Blush, Fall 
Pippin, Jonathan, Stayman, York Imperial, Northern Spy, 
Baldwin, Mcintosh. 

Grapes — Green Mountain, Niagara, Brighton, Worden, 
Diamond, Delaware. 

Peaches — Greensboro, Hiley, Carman, Waddel, Moun- 
tain Rose, Early Crawford, Niagara, Elberta, Salway, Rare 
Ripe, Belle of Georgia. 

Pears — Kieffer, La Conte, Bartlett, Clairgeau. 

North Carolina 

Apples — Red June, York, Stayman, Winesap, Grimes, 
Shockley, Ben Davis, Delicious, Newtown. 

Grapes — Niagara, Concord, Delaware, Scuppernong, 
James. 

Peaches — Greensboro, Carman, Salway. 

Pears — Kieffer, Le Conte, Seckel, Early Harvest. 

Ohio 

Apples — Yellow Transparent, Oldenburg, Sweet Bough, 
IVIaiden's Blush, Grimes, Jonathan, Northern Spy, Rome 
Beauty, York, Hubbardston. 

Grapes — Worden, Green Mountain, Niagara, Brighton. 



Rules for Naming Fruits 253 

Pears — Wilder, Bartlett, xA.ngouleme, Seckel. 

Peaches — Mountain Rose, Greensboro, Champion, El- 
berta. Smock. 

Oregon 

Apples — E. Spitzenburg, Yellow Newtown, Jonathan, 
Baldwin, Yellow Imperial, Gravenstein. 

Grapes — Concord, Niagara, Tokay, Malaga, Muscat. 

Peaches — Alexander, Crawford, Foster, Muir, Sahvay, 
Hales' Early, Cliny. 

Pears — Bartlett, Anjou, Bosc, Howell, W. Nelis, Com- 
ice, E. Beurre. 

Washington, Idaho and Montana 

Apples — Spitzenburg, Jonathan, Baldwin, Wealthy, 
Wagener, Rome Beauty, Winesap. Delicious. King David, 
Winter Banana, Gravenstein, Mcintosh, Grimes Golden, 
Arkansas Black, White Winter Pearmain, Stayman Wine- 
sap, Belleflower. 

Plums — Bradshaw, Columbia, Prince de Agen, Italian 
Prince, Imperial Gage. 

Peaches — Alexander, Mountain Rose. Foster, Muir, Sus- 
quehanna, IvCmon Cling. 

Cherries — (Sweet) Napoleon, Lambert, Black Republi- 
can; (sour) Late Duke, May Duke, Morello. 

Rules for Naming Fruits 

To avoid the confusion which arises in naming new 
varieties of fruits the American Pomological Society 
adopted the following rules, which are to be applied to all 
new varieties of fruits as they are introduced, and to the 
renaming of old varieties: 

Rule I. No two varieties of the same kind of fruit shall 
bear the same name. The name first published shall be 
the accepted and recognized name, except in cases where 
it has been applied in violation of this code. 



254 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

(a) The term "kind" as herein used shall be understood 
to apply to those general classes of fruits that are grouped 
together in common usage without regard to their exact 
botanical relationship; as apple, cherry, grape, peach, plum, 
raspberry, etc. 

(b) The paramount right of the originator, discoverer 
or introducer of a new variety to name it, within the limi- 
tations of this code, is recognized and emphasized. 

(c) Where a variety name, through long usage, has be- 
come thoroughly established in American pomological lit- 
erature for two or more varieties, it should not be dis- 
placed nor radically modified for either sort, except in 
cases where a well known synonym can be advanced to the 
position of the leading name. The several varieties bear- 
ing identical names should soon be distinguished by adding, 
the name of the author who first described each sort, or by 
adding some other suitable distinguishing term that will 
insure their identity in catalogues or discussions. 

(d) Existing American names of varieties which con- 
flict with earlier published foreign names of the same or 
other varieties, but which have become thoroughly estab- 
lished through long usage, shall not be displaced. 

Rule II. The name of a variety shall consist of a 
single word. 

(a) No variety shall be named unless distinctly superior 
to existing varieties in some important characteristic nor 
until it has become determined to perpetuate it by bud 
propagation. 

(b) In selecting names for varieties the following points 
should be emphasized: Distinctiveness, simplicity, ease of 
pronunciation and spelling, indication of origin or parent- 
age. 

(c) The spelling and pronunciation of a varietal name 
derived from a personal or geographical name should be 
governed by the rules that control the spelling and pro- 
nunciation of the name from which it was derived. 

(d) A variety imported from a foreign country should 
retain its foreign name subject only to such modification 



Publication 255 

as is necessary to conform to this code or to render it in- 
telligible in English. 

(e) The name of a person should not be applied to a 
variety during his life without his expressed consent. The 
name of a deceased horticulturist should not be so applied 
except through formal action by some competent horti- 
cultural body, preferably that with which he was most 
closely connected. 

(f) The use of such general terms as seedling, hybrid, 
pippin, pearmain, beurre, rare-ripe, damson, etc., is not ad- 
missable. 

(g) The use of a possessive noun as a name is not ad- 
missable. 

(h) The use of a number, either singly or attached to a 
word, should be considered only as a temporary expedient 
while the variety is undergoing a preliminary test. 

(i) In applying the provisions of this rule to an existing 
varietal name, that has, through long usage, become firmly 
imbedded in American pomological literature, no change 
shall be made which will involve loss of identity. 

Rule ITI. In the full and formal citation of a variety 
name, the name of the author who first published it shall 
be given. 

Publication 

Rule IV. Publication consists (1) in the distribution 
of a printed description of the variety named, giving the 
distinguishing characters of fruit, tree, etc., or (2) in the 
publication of a new name for a variety that is properly 
described elsewhere; such publication to be made in any 
book, bulletin, report, trade catalogue or periodical, pro- 
viding the issue bears the date of its publication and is 
generally distributed among nurserymen, fruit growers and 
horticulturists; or (3) in certain cases the general recog- 
nition of a name for a propagated variety in a community 
for a number of years shall constitute publication of that 
name. 

(a) In determining the name of a variety to which two 



256 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

or more names have been given in the same publication, 
that which stands first shall have precedence. 

Revision 

Rule V. No properly published variety name shall be 
changed for any reason, except conflict with this code, nor 
shall another variety be substituted for that originally de- 
scribed thereunder. 



Grafting and Budding 

Apples, pears and some other fruit and ornamental trees 
are propagated by means of grafting. This is done in 
many instances largely for the reason that the kind to be 
increased does not come true from seed; and when done on, 
large trees, it is for the purpose of changing the kind of 
fruit produced by the top or to change the shape of the 
top. Where young stock is grafted, it is generally done 
by what is known as the "whip or tongue," and as this is 
the most common style of grafting and most applicable to 
the widest range of uses, it will be described. Where large 
trees are to be worked over, the work is done by what is 
known as "cleft grafting" and will be described under that 
head. 

In grafting two things are necessary, first a lot of small 
roots of the apple. The roots most commonly used are 
from the one-year-old seedling trees. Next is a quan- 
tity of "scions" or twigs of the current year's growth from 
the trees that it is desired to increase. These scions 
should be free from the old wood and taken from the trees 
after the leaves have fallen, but before the wood freezes. 
They may be kept for any length of time till ready to use 
by packing them in damp sand or green sawdust in a cool 
cellar, or even packed in the soil out of doors and covered 
so as not to freeze. 

The grafting is best done in a cool living room or in a 
cellar where the air is moist. It can be done at any time 
duriijg the winter, but best at sometime after January and 



Making the Grafts 257 

at least a month before planting time. February is gen- 
erally the most convenient time to do the work. 



Making the Grafts 

If the twigs are long enough make the scions about six 
inches long, but they may be made shorter if necessary. 
On the butt end of the scion make a sloping cut an inch 
or an inch and a half long. Use a sharp knife and make 
the cut smooth and uniform. On the cut surface, al)out 
one-third of the way from the end of the twig, make a 
slit or tongue by a downward cut, from one-half to an inch 
deep along the grain of the wood; then cut off at the 
desired length. 

Next take one of the long seedling roots and follow the 
same process. Begin at the crown (the part of the root 
that was just at the surface of the ground) and form j* 
sloping cut, being careful that it is of the same slope as 
that of the scion, and make the tongue in the same way 
the same distance from the end of the root as in the scion. 
This done, cut the root off, having the piece about three 
inches long and repeating the process until the entire root 
has been used. If the seedlings have made a good growth 
and the soil has been porous enough to let them go down, 
each root will usually make two and sometimes three 
pieces. 

Join the root and scion by pressing the two sloping 
surfaces together and forcing the tongues to interlock. 
At this point the main thing to be observed is to watch one 
side and to see that the bark line of the scion comes in 
contact with the bark line of the root. This is highly im- 
portant, for here is where the two are to grow together. 
The scion and root may not be of the same thickness; in 
fact, seldom are, but this makes no difference if the above 
instructions are followed. rVfter pressing the two pieces 
together, it will be necessary to wrap the graft at the 
point of union with No. 18 or 20 knitting cotton. Lay the 
thread on the wood near the end of the cut, wind two or 

(9) 



258 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



three times around at this place, at the same time pressing 
the parts together with thumb and finger. Next, work the 




No. 2 

No. 1. Apple stock for graft- 
ing; a is a No. 1 apple root of 
one season's growth from seed. 
This is cut into several sec- 
tions as at b, c and d; c is the 
seedling top and d the tip of 
the root, both of which are to 
be discarded. The sections at 
b are the best for grafting. 
No. 1 No. 2. The apple graft; a is 

the scion; b is the stock; c 

shows how they are put together; d is the finished graft, 

ready for planting. 



thread up to the other end of the cut by winding it two or 
three times around the graft during the distance, then two 



Making the Grafts 259 

or three times around the other end of the cut as in the be- 
ginning. Fasten the end of the thread by drawing it 




d 



Long and short twigs of apple hefore being made Into 
scions; a, short twigs from an old tree will make only one 
scion eacli as at b; c, long twigs from thrifty trees; d, the 
same twigs made into scions, 



260 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



down in the cut and, by a sharp jerk, break it off. This 
completes the process. The finished graft should be from 
seven to nine inches long. The old way was to wax the 
point of union or wrap with waxed thread or strips of cloth 
but this is not necessary. 



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The right and wrong way to plant a graft. Holes are 
made with a dibber and grafts dropped in. If soil is packed 
down with the heel it is liable to leave an open space around 
the root, as at b. The better way is to close the hole with 
the dibber, as at c. Soil then packed tight against the root, 
as at d. 



Pack the grafts in bundles of fifty to a hundred each 
and store in green sawdust or moist sand where they are 
to remain until planting time. While packed in the saw- 
dust the cut surfaces which have been joined together will 
actually begin to heal over and partially unite, and on this 
account the grafts should not be disturbed until they are 
taken out to plant. Keep the box of grafts in a moderately 
cool room or a cellar, or bury them in the soil out of doors 



Planting 



261 



where they will not freeze. If the grafts are buried in 
sand it may have to be sprinkled and moistened several 
times before spring, and will need to be watched. 




No. 3 



No. 4 

No. 3. A pear graft; a shows 
the seedling- root and scion; b 
is the two pieces fastened to- 
gether, and c shows the waxed 
graft ready for planting. 

No. 4. This figure shows the 
right way to sliape the scions 
for cleft grafting. 



Planting 

As soon as the ground will do to work in the spring 
select a place where the soil is moderately rich, but not 



262 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

extremely so, on which to plant the grafts. Plow the land 
deeply and otherwise prepare as for a garden spot. The 
rows need not be long but should be perfectly straight. 
To get them straight stretch a string across the plot. The 
rows are to be four feet apart, laid off with a single shovel 
plow. With an old hoe handle which has been sharpened 
to a point, with a long slope, go along and punch holes 
in the ground about eight inches or a foot apart, withdraw- 
ing the pole carefully and with many side movements so the 
soil will not fall in. Plant the grafts deeply. After plac- 
ing them in the holes, see that only one or two buds of the 
scion are left above the ground. This will make it neces- 
sary to have the ground plowed deeply. Be sure to press 
the soil up closely against the roots of the grafts. This is 
best done with a dibber or short stick which is forced into 
the soil beside the grafts and crowds the soil up against 
them. The grafts cannot grow if air spaces are left around 
the roots. Give the little trees good culture, including 
two or three hoeings during the summer, and they will 
reward their owner with a vigorous growth. 

At the end of the summer the trees will be "one-year- 
old" trees of the nurseryman, and can be dug as soon as 
the leaves have fallen and ready to be transplanted to the 
orchard. If it is desired to use two-year-old trees, they 
can be left in the nursery for another summer. 

There are special implements on the market for wrap- 
ping the grafts, planting the grafts and digging the trees. 
These are of great assistance in saving time and labor 
where large quantities of trees are grown. 

Cleft Graft 

Cleft grafting can be done on any sort of fruit tree and 
is used mostly for the purpose of working over old 
trees which are beyond the condition in which they can 
be worked by the ordinary whip or tongue graft. It is the 
stjde of grafting that is especially useful where one has a 
few trees that have reached the bearing age and are found 
to be unsatisfactory either in kind or in quality of fruit. 
It is the style of grafting that will allow one to work two 



Cleft Graft 



263 




This shows a good way to top work a tree. Only about 
half the branches are grafted at one time. 



264 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

or more varieties of apples on one tree. In fact as many 
varieties as there are branches may be top-grafted on a 
single tree. It is a matter of great curiosity to see apples 
of different colors and sizes growing on the same limbs, 
but it is easily done by grafting scions of the desired va- 
rieties on bearing trees. New varieties may be oftentimes 
hurried into bearing by working them on the branches of 
trees that have reached bearing age. 

It will be necessary to collect the scions for top-grafting 
early in the winter before freezing weather and store them 
in the manner described above. The grafting is done early 
in the spring at the time the leaf buds are beginning to 
open. At this time the sap in the tree to be top-worked 

will be flowing freely, but the scion to be inserted upon it 

'should be perfectly dormant in a cellar. 

To do the work, saw off the old branch, if as much as 
■ an inch in diameter, or even the body of the tree if not 
! over four inches thick, and split down through the center 
'with a hatchet or knife. The scion (which is the same 
:kind of wood as described for other scions) should be only 
four or five inches long, and at the butt end whittle on 
both sides to a wedge shape. In making the wedge the 
slope must be long and uniform, care being taken to whit- 
tle about the same amount of wood from each side. Pry 
open the split in the trunk or branch to be grafted and 
carefully insert the scion so that the bark on one side will 
be exactly in contact with the inner part of the growing 
bark-of the old stub or stump. This is extremely import- 
ant, for here is the place where they are to grow together, 
and they cannot do so if the bark of one piece is not in 
line with the bark of the other. If the old branch or trunk 
of the tree is large enough, that is, thick enough, it is ad- 
visable to use two scions, one on either side of the stump, 
as this will double the chances for success. If the grafted 
stump be as much as three inches thick, a wedge for the 
purpose should be made and driven down in the center of 
the cleft just far enough to prevent too great pressure on 
the scions and yet not far enough to cause theni to be 
loose. After driving down to the proper point, the wedge 



Budding 265 

may be broken off. When the scions and wedges are in 
place it will be necessary to cover all of the cut surfaces 
with soft grafting wax. 

The wax may be melted in a tin pan at the house and 
carried to the orchard if not too far away, or the pan may 
be set on a hot stone and will then stay melted for a con- 
siderable time. The melted wax can be most easily 
spread over the cut surfaces of the graft by means of a 
little paddle, and needs to be spread all over the cut 
surfaces of the scion and stub, although it is not necessary 
that the bark be also waxed. This waxing is done to pre- 
vent the cut surfaces from drying out and thereby prevent- 
ing the scion and stub from uniting. The wax need not be 
disturbed at any time thereafter. 

If both or all the scions inserted on a stub should grow, 
cut all of them off but one. Only one scion should be 
allowed to grow, as more than one at a place will cause a 
bad fork that will split easily. 

Budding 

Budding is an operation done upon any woody plant 
for the purpose of increasing some desirable variety that 
cannot be obtained from seed. Its object is identical with 
grafting, and differs from it in that in grafting a scion 
bearing several buds is. used, while in budding the scion 
consists of but one bud, with a small bit of the bark to 
which it is attached. All of our tree fruits can be repro- 
duced with more or less ease by budding, while the peach 
is propagated in this manner exclusively, as it does not 
unite very readily when grafted. 

This operation will be described as generally practiced 
on the peach, although the practice will differ not at all 
for propagating apples, pears, or any of the stone fruits. 

Stock for budding is generally the one-year seedlings 
obtained by stratifying the seeds over winter and planting 
out the following spring. The seedlings will be large 
enough by June in the South for budding, and by August. 



26G 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



in the Northern states. When budded in June, the tops of 
the seedlings are cut away as soon as the buds have united, 
and the growth from the buds is very rapid, so that by late 
autumn it is large enough for planting in the orchard. 



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Budding sticks. At a the leaf blades have been cut away, 
and at b the buds to be used are partially cut off and made 
ready to take to the field. Sticks prepared in this way must 
be wrapped in a wet cloth to keep the buds from drying out. 



Budding 267 

While June budded trees are usually smaller than those 
budded in late summer, one year's time has been saved, 
which is often a matter of great importance to the grower, 
whether he is growing them for his own use or to sell. 

For summer budding, which is the most common prac- 
tice the buds should be inserted about the last week in 
August or first week in September. In general the bud- 
ding should be done at the time when the bark will peel 
the best When the work is ready to be done the buds are 
to be selected from the desired varieties. Buds are always 
procured from the young branches that have grown the 
same season the budding is done. On these young 
branches there will always be a few inches toward the tip 
which is soft and immature, and therefore this part should 
be cut away. Peach tree twigs contain both flower buds 
and leaf buds. If flower buds only were present and were 
used for budding, they would do nothing but blossom and 
die while the leaf buds (also called wood buds) will grow 
and make a top to the tree. The best wood buds are found 
towards the middle of the twig. 

The wood buds may be distinguished from the flower 
buds (also called fruit buds) by remembering that they are 
smaller, flatter and never so plump. A fruit bud can do no 
particular harm if there is also a wood bud. It is desir- 
able to remember this as a wood bud will frequently have 
a fruit bud on either side of it. When this is the case the 
outside buds may be broken off, as they are of no use. 
Where there is only one bud at the base of the leaf, it is 
usually a wood bud, and where there are two or three in 
a row across the^twig, it is almost certain that the middle 
one is a wood bud and the outside ones are fruit buds. 
After a little observation and practice it will not be hard to 
distinguish between the two kinds, and to select the proper 
one to use. 

The weather is usually very warm at budding time, so 
it will be necessary to wrap the twigs from which the 
buds are to be taken in wet paper or a damp cloth to pre- 
vent their drying out. As soon as a twig is cut from the 
tree, trim off the leaves, leaving a piece of the stem about 



268 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 



half an inch long to hold to when the buds are being in- 
serted. 

The manner of cutting the bud from the twig, which is 
known as the budding stick, is to hold the stick in the left 
hand upside down and with the other hand force the knife 
blade down through the bark and into the wood, making a 
downward cut. Next withdraw the knife and, at a point 
down near to where the cut stopped, make a cross cut just 




Budding- peaches. A is a seedling showing the T-shaped 
cut; at b the flaps have been lifted, at c the bud has been 
inserted, and d shows how it is tied with I'affia. At e the 
bud has united and the raffia removed. 



through the bark and no deeper. If the bark peels easily, 
and it should at budding time, the bud may be lifted up and 
will part from the wood very readily. While many 
prefer to have no wood adhering to the bud, there are 
some others who slice the buds off from the twig, leaving 
a portion of the wood attached to them. 

The little seedling peaches should be budded as near the 
ground as is convenient to work, which will be within two 
or three inches of the surface of the soil. The first step 
in preparing the seedling to receive the bud is to make a 



Budding 269 

slit in the bark lengthwise, and at the upper end of this 
slit a cross cut, thus forming a T-shaped figure on the 
bark of the seedling. The bark should peel readily and is 
gently raised and turned back. Now the bud should be 
cut from the budding stick as directed and inserted be- 
neath the bark of the sprout by holding with thumb and 
finger the short stem left for the purpose and forcing it 
downward sharp end first, until the square end of the bud 
gets down to where it will fit against the cross cut in the 
bark itself. The bud is then ready for wrapping. 

In order that the bud may form a union with the grow- 
ing seedling it is necessary to press it closely against the 
tree by binding with some sort of string. Nurserymen com- 
monly use a kind of material called "raffia," which is wet 
before applying and adjusts itself to the parts to be covered 
and makes an excellent wrapper. A good substitute for 
raffia easily obtained by everyone is strips a quarter or half 
an inch wide torn from old soft cotton cloths. Buds are 
sometimes tied with strips of wet corn shucks. Whatever 
is used is to be bound around newly inserted buds in such a 
manner as to leave only the stem of the leaf sticking out. 
This leaf stem will serve as an indicator to show whether 
the bud has united or not. If the stem remains green the 
bud is living; otherwise it will turn brown in a day or two. 
Do oot wait longer than ten days before examining the 
buds to see if they are living. If they have united with 
the trees, release the bandage by cutting it on the opposite 
side from the bud in order to not disturb the healing 
wound. This early examination and cutting of the string 
must not be forgotten, as it is very important. At this 
time the tree will be making a very rapid growth in thick- 
ness and in a remarkably short time will grow over the 
string and choke the tree to death, or what is more to the 
point, will make a deep ring in the tree and cause it to 
break off where the bud is inserted. During the autumn 
in which the bud is inserted in the tree it will make no 
growth other than to make a firm union with the stock, 
the bud itself remaining dormant. 

The following spring the bud will begin to grow along 



270 The Fruit-Grovvers Guide-Book 

with the other buds on the tree, and then the seedling top 
must be cut off at from one-half an inch to an inch above 
the bud. This will throw all of the growth into the new 
bud, which will shoot up rapidly. A large number of little 
sprouts will spring up around the stump, and it will be 
necessary to rub them off two or three times during the 
summer in order to keep the growth where it is wanted. 

It is best to plant peach seeds in rows running north 
and south, which will make it possible to bud all of the 
trees on the north side. This is believed to be desirable, 
because it is thought that the sun may injure the buds 
when they are first inserted. One season's growth from 
the bud makes trees of the proper age for planting in the 
orchard. 

"Springing the Bud" 

In very early budding, or at any time during a dry sea- 
son when it is difficult to obtain mature buds, pinching the 
little points of the shoots from which the buds are to be 
taken ten days or so before they are required will have the 
result of perfecting them. This is called "springing the 
bud" and is the proper practice when the embryonic twig 
seems to be loitering. We have a great deal to learn yet 
about budding and it is a science which every horticulturist 
should acquire for the time is coming when we will be 
producing the most of our planting and renewal stock in 
this way. 

How to Make Grafting Wax 

Gratfing waxes may be prepared in a great variety of 
ways, nearly all of them using resin and beeswax for the 
foundation. Some grafting waxes need to be melted over 
a fire and applied hot, others are soft and pliable when 
cold. The latter can be used in cool climates, but where 
the summers are very warm, the thin waxes when used on 
wounds or top-grafts are liable to melt and run. 

The hard waxes can easily be kept in a working condi- 
tion in the field by placing the vessel containing the wax 



Evaporating Apples 271 

over a lighted kerosene lamp. If the lamp is placed inside 
a box that has a hole cut in the top large enough to let the 
wax pot set in, the lamp can then be protected from blow- 
ing out in the wind. 

Common Grafting Waxes 

1 4 pounds resin, 2 pounds beeswax, 1 pound tallow. 

2 — 6 pounds resin, 2 pounds beeswax, 1 pound tallow. 
3 — 6 pounds resin, 2 pounds beeswax, 1 pint linseed oil. 

4 4 pounds resin, 1 pound beeswax, 1 pint raw linseed 

oil. 

Waxed String for Grafting 

Common knitting cotton, No. 18, dropped into any of 
the waxes made from beeswax and resin while the wax is 
melted. The ball should be turned over frequently and 
allowed to remain in the hot wax for several minutes to be- 
come thoroughly saturated. 

This string is useful in wrapping grafts and does not 
need to be tied. Waxed cloth can be made in the same 
way, and is used in making top grafts. 

Evaporating x^pples 

It frequently happens that a portion of the fruit crop 
cannot be profitably marketed at harvest time, and unless 
used in some other form it becomes waste on the hands 
of the grower. Such fruit may be dried or evaporated and 
be thus converted into a marketable or usable product. ' 

There is a distinction between "dried" and "evaporated" 
fruit, the former term usually being applied to sun dried 
fruit and the latter to fruit that is dried in an evaporator. 
For home use, where only small quantities are needed, sun- 
drying is the easiest means of handling such fruit. The 
fruit to be sun-dried is first pared and quartered or sliced 
and placed on a suitable surface in the sunlight, where it 
will have the advantage of free circulation of air. It is 



272 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

always advisable in sun-drying to have the fruit cov- 
ered with a thin screen that is raised an inch or so above 
the fruit to protect it from being spoiled by insects. It is 
impossible, or at least difficult, to protect sun-dried fruit 
from dust. This is one of the most serious objections to 
this manner of drying fruit, as the dust is always full of 
germs of many kinds. 

Artificial evaporators of convenient size may be had 
for home use, and are simple to construct and operate. A 
kitchen cook stove is serviceable for small quantities, and 
there are some evaporators on the market for use in this 
way. However, the principle of these evaporators is to 
support the fruit over a vessel containing hot water in such 
manner that the fruit will not be cooked nor bathed by the 
steam, but dried by a continuous flow of dry air. A wire 
screen supported over a bake pan that is covered will an- 
swer the purpose. 

Portable evaporators for use in the orchard and capable 
of handling five or ten bushels of fruit a day are easily 
constructed, or jriay be bought ready for use. They con- 
sist of a sheet iron stove over which is a box holding sev- 
eral trays on which the sliced fruit is spread. These trays 
are made of slats of wood, or galvanized iron screens. The 
top and bottom of the box is provided with openings that 
will allow of free passage of air over the fruit. 

For market it is often customary to bleach the fruit 
with the fumes of sulphur in order to keep it white and 
produce what is sometimes believed to be a more pleasing 
appearance. However, as the bleaching causes the fruit 
to absorb more or less of sulphurous acid, it is rendered 
deleterious to the health. For home use bleaching should 
not be done. 

Where considerable quantities of fruit are to be evap- 
orated some of the simple paring and slicing machines that 
are operated by hand will facilitate preparing the fruit. 
But where large quantities are to be handled a power ma- 
chine will give better service. There are such machines 
on the market that are capable of paring as much as 400 
bushels of apples a day. 



By-Laws of Grand Junction Fruit-Growers' Ass'n 273 

After the fruit is pared it will have to be trimmed of 
any little scraps of skin or worm holes and other blem- 
ishes. This is possible only by hand work, and must be 
done with an ordinary paring knife. Where the fruit is to 
be bleached, it is treated as soon after the paring and trim- 
ming as possible. The fruit is enclosed in a tight box in 
shallow layers, over which the fumes of burning sulphur 
are passing. It will take an exposure of half an hour to 
an hour and a half to sufficiently bleach the fruit. If a 
long delay occurs between the paring and bleaching it is 
impossible to make the fruit regain its original whiteness. 

The time required for drying will depend entirely on 
local conditions, and to a small extent on the weather, 
taking a longer time in rainy weather than in dry. To de- 
termine when the fruit is dry is dependent largely on tho 
experience of the dryer. The fruit should be so dry that 
when a handful is pressed into a ball it will be "springy" 
enough to separate at once upon being released. It should 
not be possible to press any juice from any of the slices, 
and the fruit should have a soft, velvety, leathery texture. 

In large fruit sections it is often a very remunerative 
business to operate a large evaporator which can use all 
of the unsaleable fruit from the vicinity, this being espe- 
cially the case when the evaporator can be used in connec- 
tion with a vinegar or canning plant. 

By-Laws of Grand Junction Fruit-Growers' Ass'n. 

I 

The name of the said association shall be the Grand 
Junction Fruit Growers' Association. 

II 

The objects for which the said association is created 
are to buy and sell fruit, vegetables, hogs, meat stock, and 
all of the products of Mesa County, both fresh and manu- 
factured; to erect, operate and maintain canning and pack- 
ing factories and commission houses; to manufacture and 



274 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

sell all products of Mesa County; to lease, mortgage and 
sell said business, and to borrow money for carrying on 
same, and to pledge their property and franchise for such 
purpose. To acquire by purchase and own real estate, 
buildings, machinery and all the necessary power and pow- 
er plants for carrying on said premises, and to lease, mort- 
gage and sell the same. 

Ill 

The term of existence of said association shall be twen- 
ty years. 

IV 

The capital stock of the said association shall be twenty- 
five thousand dollars, divided into five thousand shares of 
five dollars each. 

V 

The number of directors of said association shall be 
seven, and the names of those who shall manage the af- 
fairs of the association for the first year of its existence 
are C. W. Steele, A. A. Miller, J. W. Rose, R. W. Shrop-- 
shire, J. H. Smith, P. A. Rice and A. B. Hoyt. 

VI 

The principal office of said association shall be kept at 
Grand Junction in the said county, and the principal busi- 
ness of said association shall be carried on in the county 
of Mesa. 

VII 

The stock of the association shall be non-assessable. 

VIII 

The directors shall have the power to make such pru- 
dential by-laws as they may deem proper for the manage- 
ment of the affairs of the association not inconsistent with 
the laws of this state, for the purpose of carrying on all 
kinds of business within the objects and purposes of the 
association. 



By-Laws of Grand Junction Fruit Growers' Ass'n 275 
BY-LAWS 
Article I 

Section 1. The board of directors provided for in the 
articles of incorporation of this association shall be elected 
annually at the regular annual meeting of the stockholders, 
as hereinafter provided, and shall hold their office until 
their successors are elected and qualified. 

Section 2. Said directors shall be stockholders in said 
association and shall be fruit growers in Grand Valley and 
shall be residents of Mesa County, Colorado. 

Section 3. Any vacancy occurring in the board of di- 
rectors shall be filled by the remaining members of the 
board. 

Article II 

Section 1. The board of directors shall, as soon as 
may be after their election, elect a president and vice-presi- 
dent from among their number, who shall hold their of- 
fices for one year, and at said meeting the said board shall 
appoint a secretary-treasurer and manager, who shall be 
subject to removal at any time. 

Section 2. The secretary, treasurer and manager shall 
each, when required by the board, give bond in such sum 
and with such security as the directors may require, con- 
ditioned on the faithful performance of their duties, and to 
turn over to their successors in office all books, papers, 
vouchers, money, funds and property of whatsoever kind 
or nature belonging to the association upon expiration of 
their respective terms of office, or upon their being re- 
moved therefrom, or with other conditions as may be 
proper. 

Section 3. The president shall preside at all meetings 
of the directors or stockholders. He shall sign as presi- 
dent all certificates of stock and all other contracts and 
other instruments in writing, which may have been ordered 
by the board of directors. 

Section 4. The vice-president shall in the absence of 
or disability of the president, perform his duties. 



276 The Frult-Growers Gulde-Book 

Section 5. The manager shall have full charge of the 
commercial and shipping^department of the association. 
He shall receive all money arising from the sale of fruit 
and other commodities handled by the association, and pay 
the same to the parties entitled thereto, and render a true 
account thereof; and he shall also be the treasurer of the 
association and disburse same under the direction of the 
board of directors, except as hereinabove set forth. 

Section 6. The secretary shall keep a record of the 
proceedings of the board of directors and also of the meet- 
ings of the stockholders. He shall also keep a book of 
blank certificates of stock, fill up and countersign all cer- 
tificates issued, and make the corresponding entries upon 
the marginal stub of each certificate issued. He shall keep 
a stock ledger in due form, showing the number of shares 
issued to and transferred by any stockholder and date of" 
issuance and transfer. He shall have charge of the cor- 
porate seal and affix the same to all instruments requiring 
a seal. He shall keep in the manner prescribed by the 
board of directors all accounts of the association with its 
stockholders, in books provided for such purpose. He shall 
discharge such other duties as pertain to his office and as 
may be prescribed by the board of directors. 

Section 7. These by-laws may be amended by the board 
of directors at any special meeting thereof called for that 
purpose, a notice of such proposed amendment being given 
in the call for such special meeting. 

Article III 

Section 1. The regular meeting of the board of direc- 
tors shall be held at the office of the company on the first 
(1st) day of each month, except when the first day comes 
on Sunday or legal holiday, then on the following day. 

Special meetings of the board of directors may be called 
by the president when he may deem it expedient or neces- 
sary, or by the secretary upon the request of any three 
members of said board. 

Section 2. A majority of the board of directors shall 




Pi 

•ft 

bQ 



278 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

constitute a quorum for the transaction of business, but a 
less number may adjourn from day to day upon giving 
notice to absent members of the said board of said ad- 
journment. 

Section 3. The board of directors shall have power: 

First. To call special meetings of the stockholders 
whenever they deem it necessary, by publishing a notice 
of such meeting once a week for two weeks preceding such 
meeting in some newspaper published in Grand Junction, 
Colorado. 

Second. To appoint and remove at pleasure all em- 
ployes and agents of the association, prescribe their duties, 
where the same have not been prescribed by the by-laws 
of the association, fix their compensation, and when they 
deem it necessary, to require security for the faithful per- 
formance of their duties. 

Third. To make such rules and regulations not incon- 
sistent with the laws of the state of Colorado, and articles 
of incorporation, or the by-laws of the association, for the 
guidance of the officers and the management of the affairs 
of the association. 

Fourth. To incur such indebtedness as they may deem 
necessary for carrying out the objects and purposes of the 
association and to authorize the president and secretary to 
make the note of the association with which to raise money 
to pay such indebtedness. 

Section 4. It shall be the duty of the board of directors? 

First. To be caused to be kept a complete record of all 
of their meetings and acts, and also the proceedings of the 
stockholders, present full statements at the regular meet- 
ings of the stockholders, showing in detail the assets and 
liabilities of the association, and the condition of the af- 
fairs in general. 

Second. To supervise all acts of the officers and em- 
ployes, require the secretary, treasurer and manager to 
keep full and accurate books of account of their respective 
business. 



By-Laws of Grand Junction Fruit Growers' Ass'n 279 

Article IV 

Section 1. At the regular meeting in the month of Jan- 
uary of each year the directors shall declare such dividends 
upon the capital stock, to all the stockholders then appear- 
ing of record, as may be warranted by the net earnings of 
the association for the preceding year. 

Article V 

Section 1. The board of directors may, whenever they 
shall deem it necessary, place on sale so much of the cap- 
ital stock of the association as may be necessary to raise 
funds for the purpose of carrying out the objects and pur- 
poses of the organization of the association, such stock to 
be sold only upon the following conditions: 

First. That not more than three hundred (300) shares 
thereof be sold to any one person, firm or association of 
persons. 

Second. That such stock be sold to fruit growers in 
Grand Valley. 

Third. That such stock be sold at not less than par 
value of five dollars ($5) per share. 

Article VI 

Section 1. The annual meeting of the stockholders for 
the election of directors shall be held on the third (3rd) 
Saturday in January each year, but if, for any reason, it 
should not be held on such day, it may then be held on any 
day subsequent thereto as hereinafter provided. 

Section 2. The board of directors shall be elected by 
the stockholders at the regular annual meeting. Public 
notice of the time and place of holding such meeting and 
election shall be published not less than ten (10) days 
prior thereto, in some newspaper of general circulation 
printed in Grand Junction and the said election shall be 
made by such of the stockholders as shall attend for that 
purpose, either in person or by proxy, providing the ma- 
jority of the outstanding stock is represented. If a ma- 



280 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

jority of the outstanding stock shall not be represented, 
such meeting may be adjourned by the stockholders pres- 
ent for a period not exceeding sixty (60) days. All elec- 
tions shall be by ballot, and each stockholder shall be en- 
titled to as many votes as he or she owns shares of stock 
in said association; provided, however, that no person who 
is not himself a stockholder shall be allowed to represent 
by proxy any stockholder in the said association. 

The persons receiving the greatest number of votes shall 
be the directors for the ensuing year, and until their suc- 
cessors are elected and qualified. 

Article VTI 

Section 1. Certificates of stock may be transferred aj 
any time by the holders thereof, or by attorneys in fact or 
legal representatives. Such transfers shall be made by in- 
dorsement on the certificate of stock and surrender of 
same; provided, such transfer shall not be valid until same 
shall have been noted in the proper form on the books of 
the association. The surrendered certificates shall be can- 
celed before a new certificate in lieu thereof shall be is- 
sued, and no transfer of any share of stock shall be valid 
or allowed upon the books of the association upon which 
any deferred payments are due and unpaid, or which has 
not been sold and transferred in accordance with the pro- 
visions of the by-laws of the association. 

Section 2. Any stockholder desiring to dispose of his 
stock in the said association shall deposit the same with the 
secretary of the association, and the same shall be sold by 
the secretary at not less than par for the account of such 
stockholder within sixty (60) daj^s from date of such de- 
posit, under the restrictions of section 1, article V, of these 
by-laws: provided, that if the secretary shall not have sold 
such stock at the expiration of sixty days, then such stock 
may be returned to the stockholder and disposed of by 
him, without restriction or limitation by the association. 

Article VIII 
Section 1, All members of the association are required 



By-Laws of Grand Junction Fruit-Growers' Ass'n 281 

to market all of their fruit through the association and 
bear their proportionate share of the expenses of handling 
same. 

Section 2. Any member may have the privilege of sell- 
ing his own fruit at the orchard, but no sales of fruit shall 
be made to a dealer in fruit, or to any person why buys 
to ship outside the county. In case of sale of the entire 
crop of any particular fruit or fruits, by reporting the same 
to the association, one-half (^) only of the regular com- 
mission will be charged. 

Section 3. Any member having any grievance or cause 
for complaint as to treatment of his fruit by the associa- 
tion can appeal to the board of directors, whose decision 
shall be final. 

Section 4. All members must pack their fruit for ship- 
ping in a neat and workman-like manner, and pack in 
standard sized packages, as adopted and in general use by 
the association, having placed their name thereon. 

Article IX 

Section 1. A purchaser of stock of this, the Grand Junc- 
tion Fruit Growers' Association, shall hereafter receive of 
the profits of the association in proportion to the money 
he has invested. 



Index 



283 



INDEX 



Page 

Altitude 22 

Ammoniacal Copper Car- 
bonate 131 

Anthracnose, Currant 162 

Anthracnose, Grape 164 

Anthracnose, Raspberry.. .163 

Apple Curculio 143 

Apple Magg-ot 137 

Apples, Packing 92 

Apples, Picking -. 68 

Apples, Quick Maturing... 40 

Apples, Thinning 65 

Asparagus Beetle 154 

Bagworm 150 

Baits, Poisoned 1^7 

Baldwin Fruit Spot 157 

Bark Louse 137 

Barrels, Packing Apples in 92 

Beans, Packing 80 

Bean Weevil 155 

Beets, Packing 82 

Berrv Worm 153 

Bitter Rot 155 

Blackberries 204 

Blackberry Diseases 163 

Black Knot 162 

Black Peach Aphis 149 

Black Rot 164 

Black Rot 158 

Blight 168 

Blister Mite 148 

Blotch 156 

Borers 143 

Bordeaux Mixture 130 

Boxes, Packing Apples in 94 

Boxes, Size of 95 

Brown Mite 137 

Brown Rot 166 

Brown Spot 157 

Brown-Tail Moth 138 

Buckets 70 

Buckwheat 46 

Budding 256 

Budding 264 

Bud Moth 137 

Cabbage, Packing 79 

Cane Blight, Currant 162 

Cane Blight, Raspberry... .163 



PSLETG 

Canker Worm 139 

Canning Fruits and Vege- 
tables 239 

Carbon Bisulphide 124 

Celery, Packing 82 

Cheap Trees 36 

Cherry Diseases 162 

Cigar Case Bearer 139 

Clearing Sage Brusli 33 

Cleft Graft 262 

Clover, Crimson 46 

Clover, Red 47 

Clover Sweet 47 

Codling Moth 139 

Cover Crops 45 

Cover Crop and Tillage.... 40 

Cowpea - 47 

Crops for Tilled Orchard.. 42 

Crown Borer 152 

Crown Gall 158 

Crown Gall, Raspberry 163 

Cucumbers, Packing 81 

Cultivation, Excessive 40 

Curculio, Plum 141 

Currants 208 

Currant Diseases 162 

Danger Points 61 

Dewberry 210 

Directions for Processing 245 

Dow^nv Mildew 164 

Dropsy 163 

Environment, Influence of 49 
Evaporating Apples 271 

Fall Web Worm 144 

Fall Plowing 26 

Fillers 39 

Fillers, Small Fruits 40 

Flea Beetle 152 

Fly Speck 158 

Formalin 132 

Fungous Diseases 155 

Fungicides 129 

Frost Fighting, Develop- 
ment of 52 

Frosty Mildew 167 

Fruit-Growers' Ass'ns. By- 
L9,ws, Qrand JunctiQn....273 



284 



noex 



Grafting 256 

Grafting- Wax 270 

Grapes 212 

Grape-Cane Gall Maker.. ..154 

Grape-Cane Girdler 154 

Grape Insects 152 

Grapes, Packing 86 

Grapes, Sex in 217 

Grading 77 

Grading Machines 96 

Green Aphis of the Apj)le 134 

Green Manures 45 

Green Manuring Crops 18 

Gypsy Moth 145 

Hamilton Grading Ma- 
chine 96 

Hand and Power Pumps....ll3 

Harvesting 67 

Harvesting Blackberries 207 

Healing of Wounds 179 

Hellebore 128 

How to Plant 37 

Hydrocyanic Acid Gas 124 

Insecticides 121 

Irrigated Land, Preparing 26 
Irrigation, Preventing 

Frost By 52 

Kerosene Emulsion 122 

Ladders 70 

Land, Clearing Sage Brush 33 

Land, New 17 

Land, Old Pasture... 18 

Land, Preparing Irrigated 26 

Laying Out Orcliards 26 

Laying Out Orchard on 

Rough Land 31 

Lead Arsenate 126 

Leaf Curl 167 

Leaf Folder 152 

Leaf Hopper 153 

Leaf Roller 150 

Leaf Spot 162 

Leaf Spot, Strawberry 172 

Lettuce, Packing 80 

Lime-Sulphur, Self-Boiled 132 

I Lime-Sulphur 123 

Location for Commercial 

Orchards 20 

Manure 18 

Mechanical Pickers 69 

Meecham's "A" Level 32 

Mildew 159 

Miscible Oils IL'3 

New Land 17-23 

Nursery Stock 



Page 

Oak, Scrub 17 

One-Year-Old Trees 35 

Orchard Heating 48 

Orchards, Laying Out 26 

Orchard" Soils 15 

Oil and Coal 55 

Orchard Heaters, Distri- 
bution 57 

Orchard Heaters, Number 

to Use 56-58 

Orchard Heating, Cost of 59 

Orange Rust 163 

Oyster Shell Scale 146 

Packages, Modern 76 

Packers Handle But One 

Size 102 

Packing 76 

Packing Apples in Barrels 92 
Packing Apples in Boxes 94 

Packing the Boxes 104 

Paris Green 126 

Peach Blight 165 

Peach Diseases 165 

Peaches, Grading 89 

Peaches, in Boxes 91 

Peaches. Limitations 22 

Peaches, Packing 87 

Peach Scab 167 

Peaches, Thinning 66 

Pear Diseases 168 

Pear Leaf Blister Mite 148 

Pear Slug 148 

Pears, Thinning 66 

Peas, Canada Field 46 

Peas, Packing 80 

Planting Blackberries 205 

Planting Grapes 213 

Planting Systems ....27-29-31 

Planting Time 36 

Plum Pockets 171 

Plowing Bearing Orchard 44 

Plowing, Effect of 44 

Plowing Orchard Land 24 

Plowing Sage Brush 35 

Plowing Young Orchard... 43 

Picking Bags 70 

Picking Peaches 73 

Picking Pears 74 

Potatoes, Packing 78 

Powdery Mildew 162 

Powdery Mildew. Grape....l65 
Preparing Irrigated Land 26 
Preparing Land for Or- 
chard 23 

Preparing Land for Straw- 
berries 227 

Preparing Soil for Black- 
berries 205 



Index 



285 



Page 
Pruning — 

Apple 181 

Two-Year-Old Apple 183 

Peach 185 

Cherry 191 

Apricots 193 

Blackberries 206 

Grapes 219 

Brambles 194 

Pears 193 

Principles of 173 

Processing ....- 243 

Processing. Directions for 245 
Profits in Fruit-Growing 199 
Propagation, Blackberries 205 
Pyrethrum 125 

Radishes, Packing 82 

Rail Drag 34 

Railroad Worm 137 

Raspberries ..- 220 

Raspberry Cane Borer ...154 

Raspberry Diseases 163 

Red Spiders 150 

Resin-Lime Mixture 121 

Resin Wash 128 

Renewing Strawberry 

Field ...234 

Rose Chafer 153 

Root Louse 151 

Root Rot 160 

Rules for Naming Fruits 253 

Rust , 159 

Rye, Winter 46 

Sage Brush 33 

San Jose Scale 147 

Sawfly 151 

Scab 160 

Scale Insects 146 

Scurfy Scale 146 

Sf'X in Strawberries .235 

Shade Crops 44-45 

Sh'iUow Rooting 24 

Shed Packing Strawberries 86 

Site for Orchards 18 

Slug 151 

Small Fruits, Packing 83 

Smudges 54 

Soils for Orchard 15 

Soils, Plowing 18 

Soils. Stony 17 

Soil, Virgin 17 



Page 
Soda Bordeaux Mixture. ...130 

Sod Mulch 40 

Soluble Oils 123 

Sooty Blotch ...158 

Spraying Ill 

Spraying Materials 119 

Spring Planting 36 

Step Ladders and Picking 

Bags 71 

Sterilization 242 

Stony Land 17 

Strawberries 223 

Strawberries Between 

Trees 43 

Strawberry Diseases 172 

Strawberry Insects 150 

Strawberries. Packing 83 

Strawberries, Planting 230 

Strawberry Soils *-226 

Strawberries, Time to 

Plant 229 

Strawberry Weevil 151 

Summer Pruning 178 

Sun Scalding 44 

Sweet Potatoes, Packing.... 79 

Tanglefoot 125 

Transportation 21 

Temperature, Freezing 61 

Tent Caterpillar 147 

Thinning Fruit 64 

Tillage 40 

Time to Plant - 36 

Tobacco 122 

Tomatoes, Packing 81 

Twig Blight 158 

Two-Year-Old Trees 35 

Varieties to Plant 248 

Vegetable Insects 154 

Vegetables in Orchard 43 

Vetch. Winter 46 

Virgin Soil 17 

Water, Preventing Frosts 52 
Winter Protection, Black- 
berries 208 

Winter Protection, Rasp- 
berries 222 

Winter Protection, Straw- 
berries 233 

Wiping Apples 96 

Woolly Aphis 134 

Wounds, Healing of 179 



Books on Agriculture 



GENERAL FARMING 



American Farm Book Allen $2.00 

Animal Breeding Shaw |.50 

Book of Alfalfa Coburn 2.00 

Cereals in Airerica Hunt 1,75 

Clovers, How to Grow Them Shaw 1.00 

Cyclopedia of Agriculture (4 vols.) Bailey , 20.00 

Elements of Agriculture Welborn .75 

Farm Appliances 50 

Farm Buildings 2.00 

Farm Conveniences 1 .00 

Farm Grasses Spillman 1.00 

Farm Machinery and Farm Motors Davidson-Chase 2.00 

Forage Crops Voorhecs 1 .50 

Ginseng Kains 50 

How Crops Feed Johnson 1.50 

How Crops Grow Johnson 1.50 

Principles of Agriculture Bailey 1.25 

SOIL 

Fertilizers Voorhees $1.25 

Fertility of the Land Roberts 1.50 

First Principle of Soil Fertility Vivian 1.00 

Irrigation Farming Wilcox 2.00 

Irrigation Institutions Mead 1.25 

Soil and Crops of the Farm Morrow- Hunt 1.00 

Soils Hi Igard 4.00 

The Soil King 1.50 

FRUIT-GROWING 

American Apple Orchard Waugh $(.00 

American Fruit Culturist Thomas 2.50 

American Horticultural Manual (vol. I) Budd- Hansen 1.50 

American Horticultural Manual (vol. 2) Budd- Hansen 1.50 

Citrus Fruits and Their Culture Hume 2.50 

Conquest of Arid America Smythe 1.50 

Dwarf Fruit Trees Waugh 50 

Forcing Book Bailey 1.25 

Fruit Garden Barry 1.50 

Fruit-Grcwing in Arid Regions . Paddock-Whipple 1.50 

Fruit Harvesting, Storing and Marketing Waugh 1.00 

Horticulturist's Rule Book Bailey , 75 



Books on Agriculture — Continued 

Nursery Book Bailey $150 

Nut Culturist Fuller 1.50 

Peach Culture Fulton 1.00 

Pear Culture for Profits Quinn 1.00 

Plums and Plum Culture Waugli 1.50 

Popular Fruit-Growing Greene 1.00 

Principles of Fruit-Growing Bailey 1.50 

Propagation of Plants Fuller 1.50 

Pruning Book Bailey 1.50 

Quince Culture : Meech 1.00 

Successful Fruit Culture Maynard 1.00 

Systematic Pomology Waugli 1.00 

DISEASES OF PLANTS AND TREES 

Bacteria in Relation to Country Life Lipman $1.50 

Disease in Plants Ward 1 .60 

Fumigation Methods Johnson 1.00 

Fungous Diseases of Plants Duggar 2.50 

Plant Diseases Massee [ .60 

Spraying of Plants Lodeman 1.25 

Text Book on Entomology Packard 4.50 

Insects and Insecticides Weed 1.50 

SMALL FRUITS 

American Grape Growing and Wine Making Husman $1.50 

Bush Fruits Card 1 .50 

Cape Cod Cranberries Webb 40 

Cranberry Culture White 1 .00 

Grape Culturist Fuller 1.50 

Small Fruit Culturist Fuller 1.00 

Strawberry Culturist Fuller 25 

GARDENING 

Asparagus Hexamer $0.50 

Bean Culture Sevey 50 

Book of Vegetables French 1 .75 

Cabbage-Cauliflower Allen 50 

Celery Culture Beattie 50 

Mushrooms, How to Grow Them Falconer 1.00 

New Onion Culture Greiner 50 

New Rhubarb Morse 50 

Onions 20 

Potato, The . Eraser 75 

Practical Garden Book Bailey 1 .00 

Sweet Potato Culture , Fitz 50 

Tomato Culture Tracy 50 

Truck Farming in South Davis 1.00 

Vegetable Gardening Bailey 1.50 



Books on Agriculture — Continued 

POULTRY 

Ducks and Geese $0.75 

Eggs and Egg Farms 50 

Plymouth Rocks 1 .25 

Poultry Doctor Robinson 50 

Poultry Houses and Fixtures .50 

Reliable Poultry Remedies 25 

Turkeys Myrick 1 .00 

Wyandottes 1.25 

MISCELLANEOUS 

A B C «. X Y Z of Bee Culture Root $1.50 

American Sugar Industry IVIyrick 1.50 

Cement Worker's Hand Book 50 

Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life Snyder (.25 

Cider Maker's Hand Book Trowbridge I.OO 

Cyclopedia of American Horticulture (4 vols.) Bailey 20.00 

Evolution of Our Native Fruits Bailey 2.00 

Farmer's Business Hand Book Roberts 1.25 

How to Choose a Farm Hunt 1.75 

Landscape Gardening Waugh 50 

New Creations in Plant Life Harwood 1.75 

Plant Breeding Bailey 1.25 

Rural Wealth and Welfare Fairchild 1.25 

Survival of the Unlike Bailey 2.00 

The Farmstead Roberts 1.50 

Any of the books listed on the preceding pages can be 
obtained at the price named, from 

THE FRUIT-GROWER, 

ST. JOSEPH, MISSOURI 



innn 



One copy del. to Cat. Div. 



APR 8 I9f1 



